Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science

✍ Scribed by Scott Elias; Cary Mock

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2013
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 3881
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

The second revised edition of the Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, provides both students and professionals with an up-to-date reference work on this important and highly varied area of research. There are lots of new articles, and many of the articles that appeared in the first edition have been updated to reflect advances in knowledge since 2006, when the original articles were written. The second edition will contain about 375 articles, written by leading experts around the world. This major reference work is richly illustrated with more than 3,000 illustrations, most of them in colour.


Research in the Quaternary sciences has advanced greatly in the last 10 years, especially since topics like global climate change, geologic hazards and soil erosion were put high on the political agenda. This second edition builds upon its award-winning predecessor to provide the reader assured quality along with essential updated coverage
Contains 357 broad-ranging articles (4310 pages) written at a level that allows undergraduate students to understand the material, while providing active researchers with a ready reference resource for information in the field. Facilitates teaching and learning
The first edition was regarded by many as the most significant single overview of Quaternary science ever, yet Editor-in-Chief, Scott Elias, has managed to surpass that in this second edition by securing even more expert reviews whilst retaining his renowned editorial consistency that enables readers to navigates seamlessly from one unfamiliar topic to the next

✦ Table of Contents

Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science
How to go to your page
Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science
Copyright
Dedications
Russell Coope
Bill Watts
Aleksis Dreimanis
Foreword
Introduction
Editorial Advisory Board
Contributors
How to Use the Encyclopedia
1. Contents list by subject
2. Alphabetical contents list
Example
3. Cross-references
Example
4. Index
5. Contributors
Contents List by Subject
Introduction and History of Science
Paleoclimatology
Overview and Approaches
Paleoclimate Reconstructions
Climate Forcing Mechanisms
Climate Modelling
Dating Techniques
Radiometric Methods
Geomagnetic Excursions and Secular Variations in the Magnetic Field
Biological Methods
Annual Layer Methods
Chemical Methods
Quaternary Stratigraphy
Quaternary Glaciation
Glacial Landforms
Permafrost and Periglacial Features
Tree-ring section
Fluvial Environments
History of Quaternary Glaciations
Sea Level Studies
Paleosols and Wind-Blown Sediments
Paleosol Research
Dune Studies
Loess Studies
Lake Level Studies
Paleobotany
Overview
Pollen Studies
Charred Particle Analysis
Quaternary Pollen Records
Phytoliths
Ancient Plant DNA
Plant Macrofossil Studies
Plant Macrofossil Records
Diatom Studies
Paleolimnology
Vertebrate Studies
Insect Fossil Studies
Beetle Studies
Chironomid Studies
Oribatid Mite Studies
Paleoceanography
Paleoceanographic Studies
Paleoceanographic Records
Ice Core Studies
Ice Core Studies
Ice Core Records
Stable Isotope Research - Carbonates
Humans in the Quaternary
Use of Quaternary proxies in forensic science
Contents
Introductory Articles
History of Quaternary Science
Introduction
Establishing the Geologic Framework
The Discovery of Pleistocene Mammals
The Discovery of Pleistocene Glaciations
Development of Theories on the Causes of Glaciation
The Invention of Dating Methods
Conclusion
References
History of Dating Methods
Early Developments
Radiocarbon Dating
Potassium-Argon and Argon-Argon Dating
Fission Track Dating
Luminescence Dating
Electron Spin Resonance Dating
Uranium Series Methods
Dating the Past 100 Years
Cosmogenic Nuclide Dating
Amino Acid Racemization
Summary
References
Societal Relevance of Quaternary Research
Introduction
Climate History
Ocean History
Cryosphere History
Lithosphere History
Geologic Hazards
Biosphere History
References
Understanding Quaternary Climatic Change
Introduction
Astronomical Rhythm of Climate Change
Short-Term (Sub-Milankovitch´) Climatic Variations The Role of the Oceans Global Feedback Mechanisms Numerical Environmental Modeling Climate and Humans References Relevant Website Amino Acid Dating Factors Influencing the State of Biomolecules over Geologic Time Preservation of Amino Acids Amino Acid Racemization Temperature Environmental pH Taxonomic Effects Leaching Separation and Detection of d- and l-Amino Acids Applications Aminostratigraphy Absolute Age and Paleothermometry Time-Averaging Conclusions References Archaeological Records Overview Introduction The Transition to Paleoanthropology Adaptive Radiations and Climate Forcing From Dispersals to Diasporas and the Legacy of the Pleistocene Social Rather than Environmental Change Technological Modes and the Evolution of a Social Brain The Human Revolution: Gradual or Abrupt? Future Prospects References 2.7 Myr-300000Years Ago in Africa Introduction Oldowan Transitional Industries: Developed Oldowan-Early Acheulean Acheulean Conclusion References 2.7 Myr-300000Years Ago in Asia Introduction Early Pleistocene Hominins in Asia Middle Pleistocene Hominin Archives in Asia, 800-300ka The Movius Line Middle Pleistocene Hominins: Speciation Events and Isolation? References 1.9 Myr-300000Years Ago in Europe Glossary Introduction The Pattern of Hominin Colonization of Western Europe Social Construction Subsistence Behavior Tool Behavior What the Archaeology can tell us about Cognition The Ideational Realm Conclusion References Global Expansion 300 000-8000Years Ago, Africa Models of the Geographical Origin of Modern Humans The Expansion of Modern Humans References Global Expansion 300000-8000Years Ago, Asia Transitions in Lithic Production after 300ka The Emergence of the Upper Paleolithic and the Expansion of Modern Humans The Replacement of Indigenous Populations of Neanderthals, H. erectus and H. floresiensis by Modern Humans The Colonization of New Territories after 125ka Settling and Sedentism: Developments after the Last Glacial Maximum References Global Expansion 300 000–8000 Years Ago, Australia Introduction Paleoenvironments Chronology of Human Arrivals Physical Anthropology Impacts of Humans on Environments Technology and Economy References Global Expansion 300 000-8000Years Ago Introduction Old World Origins Paleoenvironments and Routes of Dispersal Chronology of Human Arrivals Physical Anthropology Impact of Humans on Environments Technology and Economy Summary Acknowledgment References Human Evolution in the Quaternary Introduction The Emergence of Homo H. erectus and the First Human Expansions TheTransitional´ Hominins
The Appearance of H. sapiens
Conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
Neanderthal Demise
Introduction
Species Definitions
References
Relevant Websites
Postglacial Adaptations
World Overview
Europe
Conclusion
References
Beetle Records
Overview
Introduction
Where Fossil Beetles Are Found
Methods of Sampling and Extraction
Exoskeletal Parts Preserved in Quaternary Deposits
Basic Assumptions for Use in Paleoecology
Usefulness of Beetles as Paleoclimate Proxies
Multifaceted Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions
Other Types of Studies
References
Late Tertiary and Early Quaternary Records
Introduction
Preservation of Late Tertiary/Early Quaternary Insect Fossils
Research in Alaska and Canada
Research in Siberia
Research in Greenland
Potential Importance of Research
References
Middle Pleistocene of Western Europe
Introduction
Middle Pleistocene Beetle Assemblages
Middle Pleistocene Coleopteran Studies in Western Europe
Conclusion
References
Late Pleistocene of Australia
Introduction
The Australian Beetle Fauna
Paleoclimatic Reconstruction
A Longer Quaternary Context: The early Pleistocene Stony Creek Basin Site
Late Pleistocene Records
Discussion
Summary
References
Late Pleistocene of Europe
Introduction
Upper Pleistocene Beetle Assemblages
References
Late Pleistocene of Japan
Introduction
Fossil Sites
Fossil Records
Nojiri-Ko Insect Fauna
Biogeography
Future of Japanese Quaternary Entomology
References
Late Pleistocene of North America
Research in Eastern North America
Research in Western North America
Research in Eastern Beringia
Conclusions
References
Late Pleistocene of South America
Background
The Landscape of Southern Chile
The Existing Beetle Fauna
Fossil Studies
References
Late Pleistocene of New Zealand
Introduction
Background
Quaternary Stasis in NZ Beetles
Late Pleistocene Beetle Distributions
Quantifying Past Climates
Forest Refugia in NZ During the eLGM
References
Late Pleistocene of Northern Asia
Glossary
Late Pleistocene Beetle Records from Northern Asia
Summary
References
Postglacial Europe
Introduction
Climatic Context
Vegetation History
The Onset of the Holocene: Beetles at the Younger Dryas-Preboreal Transition
Climatic Indications from Coleoptera During the Holocene
Impact of Forest Clearance on Saproxylophagous and Grassland Coleoptera
Other Consequences of Human Action
Holocene History of the Beetle Fauna of Mediterranean Mountains
Conclusion
References
Postglacial North America
Introduction
Research in Eastern North America
Research in Western North America
References
Carbonate Stable Isotopes
Overview
Concepts in Stable Isotope Geochemistry
Speleothems
Teeth and Bones
Biogenic Carbonates
Lacustrine Sediments
Nonlacustrine Terrestrial Carbonates
Terrestrial Organic Materials
Conclusions
References
Speleothems
Stable Isotope Systematics in Speleothems
Dating
Paleoclimate Inferred from Oxygen Isotope Records in Speleothems
Determination of δ18O of Paleowaters
Application to Paleoclimate Studies
Paleotemperature Records
Carbon Isotopes
Future Directions and Problems
References
Terrestrial Teeth and Bones
Introduction
Paleobiological Tracking by Isotopes in Teeth and Bones
Diagenetic Alteration
Reconstruction of Terrestrial Paleoenvironments
Reconstruction of the Paleobiology of Extinct Species
Implications for Late Pleistocene Extinctions
Perspectives
References
Terrestrial Organic Materials
Introduction
Stable Isotopes in Tree Rings
Isotopic Fractionation by Trees
Interpreting Stable Isotopes from Tree Rings
Stable Isotopes in Peat Profiles
Stable Isotope Analysis of Pollen
Preparation of Pollen Samples
Environmental Signals
References
Non-Lacustrine Terrestrial Studies
Introduction
The Oxygen-Isotopic Composition of Surficial Meteoric Carbonates
The Carbon-Isotopic Composition of Surficial Meteoric Carbonates
Soil Carbonate, Climate, and Vegetation
Soil Carbonate Formation and the Soil Diffusion Model
Long-Term Records of Climate Change from Nonlacustrine Calcites
References
Lake Sediments
Introduction
Global Spatial- and Age-Distribution of Carbonate-Precipitating Lakes
Sampling of Lacustrine Sediments
Nature of Carbonate in Lacustrine Sediments
Isotopic Composition of Lacustrine Carbonate
Summary and Conclusions
References
Nonmarine Biogenic Carbonates
Introduction
Equilibrium Precipitation
Vital Effects´ and Modern Calibration Micro-Sampling Techniques Unionid Bivalves and Freshwater Mollusks Calcareous Algae and Aquatic Plants Fish Otoliths Conclusions References Chironomid Records Chironomid Overview Introduction Biology Classification Fossils and their Identification Sample Preparation Ecology and Distribution Quaternary Paleoecology References Africa Introduction Chironomid Records of Past Environmental Change in Africa Methodological Advances in African Chironomid Paleoecology Taxonomy and Biogeography of African Chironomidae References Late Pleistocene of Europe Introduction Chironomids as Qualitative Indicators of Climate Change in the late Pleistocene Chironomids as Quantitative Indicators of Climate Change in the late Pleistocene Conclusion References Postglacial Europe Introduction Reconstructions of Lake Ontogeny Effects of Pollution on Lake Ecosystems and Reconstruction of Water Quality Chironomid-Based Summer Temperature Reconstruction Causative Environmental Cues for the Postglacial Chironomid Communities Future Developments References Postglacial Southern Hemisphere Introduction Australasian-South American Fossil Chironomid Studies Hemispheric and Interhemispheric Comparison Future Research Directions Modern Taxonomy and Ecology Chironomid-Temperature Inference Models References Cosmogenic Nuclide Dating Overview Introduction Synthesis of TCN applications CRONUS Calculator Preface References Methods Introduction TCN-Specific Progress Production of Cosmogenic Nuclides in Terrestrial Rocks Outlook References Cosmic Ray Interactions in Minerals Introduction Development of the Secondary Particles of the Cosmic Radiation in the Earth's Atmosphere Rates of Nuclear Interactions in Targets Exposed at Different Altitudes in the Atmosphere Rates of Production of Nuclides at Different Altitudes in the Atmosphere and at Depths in the Lithosphere Rates of Production of Nuclides in Landforms Exposed at Different Altitudes in the Atmosphere and Lithosphere Conclusions Units Used in Cosmic Ray Physics Definitions of Cosmic Ray Flux, and Geometric and Absorption Nuclear Interaction Rates Modulation of Cosmic Ray Flux by the Geomagnetic Field; Cutoff Rigidity and Kinetic Energy References Exposure Geochronology Introduction Dating Rocks and Sediment with Cosmogenic Nuclides The Spectrum of Dated Landforms Rates of Tectonic Activity Landslide Dating Dating of Paleoshorelines Arid Regions Summary and Outlook References Landscape Evolution Introduction Dating Techniques Introduction Radioactive Nuclides Radiative Dosimetry Methods Amino Acid Racemization Qualitative and Comparative Methods References Further Reading Dendrochronology Introduction Origins and History Biological Foundations Principles of Dendrochronology Dendrochronological Methodologies Concluding Remarks References Dendroclimatology Introduction Basic Principles and Methods Chronology Development Reconstruction of Climate Variables Historical Development Applications of Dendroclimatology Tree-Ring Networks Investigations in the Tropics Changing Signals Concluding Remarks Acknowledgment References Diatom Introduction The Biology of Diatoms The Structure of the Diatom Frustule Features of the Valve Lifecycles and Life Form Diatom Habitats Biogeography and Endemism Collecting and Studying Live Diatoms Cleaning and Sample Preparation Identification Enumerating Diatoms Preservation and Taphonomy Diatoms as Paleoenvironmental Indicators Diatoms and Quantitative Inferences of Past Water Quality Using Transfer Functions References Diatom Methods δ18O Records Introduction Analytical Considerations Diatom Oxygen Systematics Conclusions References Data Interpretation Introduction Why Are Diatoms Good Paleoindicators? Analytic and Interpretative Procedures Ecological and Habitat Classification - Qualitative Approaches Toward More Objective Assessment Estimating Parameter Values Using Diatoms Evaluation of the Reconstruction Conclusions References Diatomites: Their Formation, Distribution, and Uses Introduction Diatomite Formation Preservation of Diatoms Diatomite Distributions and Age The Use of Diatomites Conclusions Acknowledgment References Salinity and Climate Reconstructions from Continental Lakes Introduction Diatoms as Indicators of Salinity and Ion Composition Lakes, Salinity, and Climate Quaternary Environmental History as Inferred from Diatoms Conclusions References Use in Archaeology Introduction Diatoms as Indicators of the Site Environment Diatom Analysis of Artifacts and Ancient Building Materials Salt Extraction Sites Moats and Medieval Fish Ponds Crannogs Waterfronts Ancient Boats Other Archaeological Contexts References Diatoms Introduction Diagnosis of Drowning Provenance of Questioned Samples Diatomite Soils and Aerophilous Diatoms Period of Immersion Conclusion References Diatom Records Antarctic Waters Marine Antarctic Waters: The Southern Ocean Siliceous Ooze Belt Applications of Quaternary Marine Antarctic Diatoms Nonmarine Antarctic Waters: Freshwater Diatoms References Relevant Websites Freshwater Laminated Sequences Introduction Diatoms as a Structural Component in Sediment Varves Methods of Analyzing Diatom Microstratigraphy Diatom Assemblages Provide High-Resolution Records of Environmental Changes Avenues for Further Research References Large Lakes Introduction Diatoms as Paleoenvironmental Proxies Case Studies Conclusion References Diatom Fossil Records from Marine Laminated Sediments Introduction Intra- to Interannual Diatom Productivity Events from Quaternary Laminated Sediments: Marine Varves Centennial- to Orbital-Scale Diatom Records from Quaternary Laminated Sediments Summary References North Atlantic and Arctic Introduction Pleistocene Diatom Record Diatoms in Surface Sediments SSTs in the North Atlantic and the Nordic Seas Conclusion References Pacific Introduction Paleoceanographic Proxies Sea-Surface Temperature (C) Diatom Assemblages Associated with Oceanic Conditions Holocene Deglaciation Climate Changes Based on the Diatom-Inferred SSTs (C) Glacial-Interglacial Cycles Mega-Floods During the LGM in Northeast Pacific Ocean Biostratigraphy Phylogenic Evolution Acknowledgment References Structures and Applications of Biomarkers from Arctic Sea Ice Diatoms Introduction Sea Ice Biota Analysis of Sea Ice Diatoms IP25: A Proxy for Arctic Sea Ice References Dune Fields High Latitudes Introduction Primary Dune Fields Other Dunes and Dune Fields Types Origins Ages Paleoenvironmental Significance and Future Directions References Mid-Latitudes Introduction Dune Fields in China Dune Fields in Central Asia and South America Dune Fields in North America Conclusion References Low Latitudes Evidence for Paleoenvironments in Low-Latitude Sand Seas Regional Summaries Conclusion References Eolian Records, Deep-Sea Sediments Introduction Nature of the Data Interpretation of the Data Summary References Fission-Track Dating Introduction Age Equation Prerequisite Conditions for FT Geochronology Glass-FT Methods Correction Methods for PTF in Glasses Accuracy and Precision of Glass-FT Ages Zircon Fission-Track Method Applications Concluding Statement Acknowledgment References Fluvial Environments Sediments Introduction Fluvial Sediments Fluvial Channel Patterns Sedimentary Records of Quaternary Fluvial Systems Summary References Responses to Rapid Environmental Change Introduction General Concepts Case Studies Summary References Terrace Sequences Introduction Types of Fluvial Terraces and Terrace Terminology Causes and Processes of Fluvial Terrace Formation Case Studies of Terrace Formation Climatically Driven Terrace Formation Cycles of Aggradation and Degradation in Arroyos of the Semiarid American Southwest Conclusions References Deltaic Environm Introduction River Deltas Deltas in the Quaternary References Relevant Website Geomagnetic Excursions and Secular Variations Introduction Geomagnetism Paleomagnetism Paleosecular Variation Records Long-Timescale Relative Paleointensity Variations Geomagnetic Excursions Geomagnetic Reversals Paleomagnetic Dating in Quaternary Stratigraphy Conclusions References Relevant Websites Glacial Climates Biosphere Feedbacks Introduction Main Mechanisms of Climate-Biosphere Interaction Hot Spots of Climate-Biosphere Interaction in Quaternary Conclusions References Effects of Atmospheric Dust Atmospheric Dust Dust Measurements Dust Variability Models of the Dust Cycle Particle Properties Dust Effects Effect of Dust on Ocean Biogeochemistry Conclusion References Thermohaline Circulation What is the Thermohaline Circulation? Some Observational Data What Drives the THC? Nonlinear Behavior of the THC The Circulation's Effect on Climate The Role of the THC in Quaternary Climate Changes The Future of the THC References Volcanic and Solar Forcing Solar Variability Volcanism Climate Modeling Proxy Data Model/Data Comparisons References Glacial Landforms Introduction Introduction The Subglacial Environment Ice-Sheet Marginal and Supraglacial Landform-Sediment Associations Subaquatic Glacial Depositional Systems Sediment-Landform Associations of Mountain Glaciation and Glaciated Valleys References Moraine Forms and Genesis Introduction Push and Squeeze Moraines Dump Moraines and Ice-Marginal Aprons Latero-Frontal Fans and Ramps Medial Moraines Hummocky Moraine and Controlled Moraine Morainal Banks and Coalescent Subaqueous Fans De Geer Moraines Ice-Shelf Moraines References Quaternary Vulcanism: Subglacial Landforms Subglacial Volcanic Landforms Mafic Tuyas Felsic Tuyas Pillow Mounds, Ridges, and Sheets Tephra Mounds and Ridges Felsic Lobes and Domes Subglacial Sheet-Like Sequence Influence of Glacier Thermal Regime on SubglacialVolcanic Landforms References Evidence of Glacier Recession Introduction Evidence for Late Holocene Glacier Recession Modern Glacier Recession and Geomorphology Late Pleistocene Glacier Recession Ice-marginal Stagnation Along the Southern Margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet Estimated Rates of Glacier Recession During the Late Pleistocene Implications of Evidence of Glacier Recession References Relevant Websites Glacial Landsystems Introduction Landsystem Modern Analogs Applications of Modern Analogs to Quaternary Glacial Landscapes Conclusion References Glaciofluvial Landforms of Erosion Introduction Glacial Lake Outbursts Tunnel Valleys Ice-Marginal (Lateral) Meltwater Channels Subglacial Sheetfloods - The Meltwater Hypothesis References Glacitectonic Structures and Landforms Glacitectonic Processes Composite Ridges and Thrust-Block Moraines Hill-Hole Pairs Cupola Hills Megablocks and Rafts References Glacial Landforms, Erosional Features Major Scale Forms Introduction Glacial Cirques Glacial Troughs Rock Basins and Fjords Ages and Rates Landscapes of Glacial Erosion References Micro- to Macroscale Forms Fundamentals of Glacial Erosion Glacial Erosional Forms Applications in Quaternary Science References Glacial Landforms, Ice Sheets Growth and Decay Glacier Mass Balance, Equilibrium Line Altitudes, and the Growth and Decay of Terrestrial Ice Sheets Sea Level and the Growth and Decay of Marine-Based Ice Sheets Surface Albedo, Solar Radiation Budget, and Ice Sheet Fluctuations Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels and Ice Sheet Changes Ice Sheet Elevation and Mass Balance Ocean Circulation and Ice Sheet Growth and Decay Process Complexity and Ice Sheet Fluctuations References Evidence of Glacier and Ice Sheet Extent Importance of the Extent of Past Glaciers and Ice Sheets Areal Ice Extent Vertical Extent References Evidence of Glacier Flow Directions Introduction and Significance Glacial Inversion of Paleo-Ice Sheet Beds Cross-Cutting Ice Flow Indicators, Flow-Sets, Fans, and Ice Streams Ice Flow Indicators Under Contemporary Ice Sheets References Paleo-ELAs Relationships Between Precipitation-Temperature and the ELA Approaches to Calculating Paleo-ELAs Validity of Different Approaches for Paleo-ELA Reconstruction Conclusion References Trimlines and Paleonunataks Introduction Hypotheses of Trimline Formation Trimline Geomorphology Relative-Age Dating of Trimlines Surface Exposure Dating Using Cosmogenic Isotopes Geomorphological Evidence Paleoglaciological Considerations Conclusion References Volume 2 Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science Copyright Dedications Russell Coope Bill Watts Aleksis Dreimanis Foreword Introduction Editorial Advisory Board Contributors How to Use the Encyclopedia 1. Contents list by subject 2. Alphabetical contents list Example 3. Cross-references Example 4. Index 5. Contributors Contents List by Subject Introduction and History of Science Paleoclimatology Dating Techniques Quaternary Stratigraphy Quaternary Glaciation Tree-ring section Fluvial Environments History of Quaternary Glaciations Sea Level Studies Paleosols and Wind-Blown Sediments Lake Level Studies Paleobotany Paleolimnology Vertebrate Studies Insect Fossil Studies Paleoceanography Ice Core Studies Stable Isotope Research - Carbonates Humans in the Quaternary Use of Quaternary proxies in forensic science Contents Glacial Landforms, Sediments Clast Form Analysis Introduction Defining Particle Form Field Measurements Influences on Particle Form Conclusion References Glaciofluvial Landforms of Deposition Introduction: Glaciofluvial Systems Glaciofluvial Landforms of Deposition Links to Other Systems Conclusion References Further Reading Glaciogenic Lithofacies The Meaning of Facies The Complex Glacial Environment Glacial Depositional Systems: Facies Models and Facies Associations Terrestrial Glacial Depositional Systems Marine Glacial Depositional Systems Using Glacial Lithofacies to Unravel Pre-Quaternary Glacial Climates References Glaciomarine Sediments and Ice-Rafted Debris Introduction Glaciomarine Sediments in the Quaternary Record Ice-Rafted Debris References Glaciolacustrine Introduction Glaciolacustrine Processes Glaciolacustrine Sediments Glaciolacustrine Depocenters Conclusion References Micromorphology of Glacial Sediments Introduction Sampling and Preparation of Thin Sections Thin Section Description Recent and Future Developments in Microscopic Studies References Tills Subglacial Processes Subglacial Till Types Subglacial Till Nomenclature References Till Fabric Analysis Introduction Data Collection Data Presentation Summary Statistics Significance of Till Fabrics Concluding Remarks References Glacial Erratics and Till Dispersal Indicators Erratics Indicator Fans and Till Dispersal Indicators References Glacial Sequence Stratigraphy Introduction Sequence Stratigraphy Related to Glacially Influenced Sea-Level Change Sequence Stratigraphy Related to Terrestrial Glaciogenic Deposits Nomenclature of Glacial Sequence Stratigraphy References Glacial Landforms, Tree Rings Dendrogeomorphology Introduction Development of Tree Rings Reference Chronologies Process-Event-Response Growth Reactions in Trees Future Trends References Dendroglaciology Introduction Dendroglaciological Applications Climate and Glacier Mass Balance Reconstruction Concluding Remarks References Glacial-Interglacial Scale Fluvial Responses Introduction History of Ideas Glacial Versus Interglacial Worlds Glacial Versus Interglacial Fluvial Systems Conclusion References Glaciation, Causes Tectonic Uplift and Continental Configurations Introduction Role of Tectonics on Climate Change BLAG Hypothesis Plateau Uplift and Climate Change Complexities of the Cenozoic Cooling and Tectonics Drifting Continents and Oceanic Gateways General Circulation Modeling Conclusion References Astronomical Theory of Paleoclimates Past Climates at Astronomical Timescales The Astronomical Theory of Paleoclimates, a Historical Point of View Long-Term Variations of the Astronomical Parameters Milankovitch Theory and Past Climates Modeling Past and Future Climates References Glaciations Overview Europe North America South America/Antarctica Central Asia Australasia Africa References Transition from Late Neogene to Early Quaternary Environments Introduction Final Closure of CAS as Trigger for the Onset of Quaternary Climates Northern Ocean Response to the Closing of CAS Conclusions Acknowledgment References Early Quaternary (Pleistocene) and Precursors Antarctica South America Australasia Africa North America Europe References Middle Pleistocene in Eurasia Northwest Europe Oldest Glaciations of Russia Elsterian Glaciation (Elsterian Stage) Holsteinian Stage and Wacken/Dömnitz Substage (Saalian Stage) Saalian Glaciation (Saalian Stage) The Alpine Glaciations References Mid-Quaternary in North America Correlation of Glaciated Landscapes Dating Tools References Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in the Southern Hemisphere Introduction South America Southern Pacific Ocean Islands Conclusion References Late Pleistocene Glacial Events in Beringia Introduction Contrasts in Paleoclimate Across Eastern and Western Beringia Sea-Level History Rapid Onset of Glaciation During MIS 5 Early Wisconsin/Zyryan Glaciation (MIS 4) Middle Wisconsin/Karaginsky Interstadial Late Wisconsin/Sartan Glaciation References Late Quaternary of the Southwest Pacific Region Introduction Australia New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands Discussion References Relevant Websites Late Quaternary of Antarctica Glossary Introduction Pre-Quaternary Glacial History of Antarctica Pleistocene Glacial Cycles in Antarctica Last Glacial Cycle and the LGM in Antarctica Deglaciation and Holocene Development of Glaciation and Climate in the Antarctic Peninsula Region Deglaciation and Holocene Development of Glaciation and Climate in East Antarctica Deglaciation and Holocene Environmental Development in Ross Sea and Victoria Land Summary of the Late Quaternary Glacial History of Antarctica References Late Pleistocene in Eurasia Eemian Stage Interglacial Weichselian Cold Stage Deglaciation References Late Quaternary in Highland Asia Introduction Himalaya and Trans Himalaya Tibet Tien Shan and Altai Mountains Pamir Equilibrium-Line Altitudes Conclusion References Late Quaternary in North America Early Glacial Initiation-MIS Substages 5b and 5d Early Wisconsinan-MIS Stage 4 Middle Wisconsinan-MIS 3 Late Wisconsinan-MIS 2/1 References Late Pleistocene in South America Introduction Ice Advances in the Northern Andes (11deg N-9deg S, Higher Elevations at sim5000 masl) Ice Advances in the Central Andes (9deg-39deg S, Higher Elevations at sim7000 masl) Ice Advances in the Southern Andes (39deg-55deg S, Higher Elevations at 2000 masl) Final Remarks References Neoglaciation in Europe Introduction Reconstructing Neoglaciation Pattern and Timing of Neoglaciation Models of Neoglaciation and Geographical Variation in Glacier Behavior European Neoglacial Events and Climatic Forcing Factors Conclusion References and Further Reading Neoglaciation in the American Cordilleras Concept of Neoglaciation Recognition of aLittle Ice Age'
The Hypsithermal Interval
Definition of Neoglaciation
Establishing Neoglacial Chronologies
Neoglacial Chronology of North and South America
Onset of Neoglaciation
Temporal Pattern of Glacier Variations
Hemispheric Contrasts in Relative Glacier Extent
References
Ice Core Methods
Overview
Introduction
Ice-Core Basics
Ice-Core Chronology
Proxy and Other Measurements in Ice Cores
Major Highlights of Ice Core Research
Future of Ice Coring
References
Biological Material
Introduction
Biogenic Matter in Polar Ice Sheets and Temperate Mountain Glaciers
The Vostok Ice Core
Ice Cores from Greenland
Temperate Mountain Glaciers
Methods for Measuring Biotic Matter in Ice Cores
Metabolic and Evolutionary Potential of Ice-Bound Microorganisms
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Borehole Temperature Records
General Concepts
Heat Transfer in Ice
Measurement of the Temperature-Depth Profile
The Inverse Problem
Major Results
References
Chronologies
Introduction
Layer Counting
Flow Models
Radioactive Dating
Age Horizons and Synchronization
Age Scale for the Air Occluded in the Ice
References
CO2 Studies
Introduction
The Last Millennium
The Holocene
The Transition from the Last Glacial Epoch to the Holocene
The Last Glacial Epoch
CO2 Records over Eight Glacial Cycles
Analytical Methods
Reliability of CO2 Data from Ice Cores
References
Conductivity Studies
Background
DC Conductivity and the ECM Technique
Dielectric Profiling
Uses of Electrical Measurements
Electrical Properties of the Ice Sheet
References
Glaciochemistry
Introduction
Glaciochemical Background and Measurement
Glaciochemical Sources and Spatial/Temporal Variability
References
Methane Studies
Introduction
The Last Millennium
The Holocene
The Last Glaciation and Deglaciation
The Last Eight Glacial-Interglacial Cycles
Analytical Techniques
References
Microparticle and Trace Element Studies
Introduction
Extent of the Glaciochemical Archive
Aerosols and Microparticles
Sources of Microparticles in Glacier Ice
Ice-Core Research Results
Conclusions and Future Directions
Acknowledgment
References
Stable Isotopes
Introduction
Standard Notation and Measurements
Basic Theory and Observations of Modern Isotope Distribution in Polar Regions
Reliability of the Isotope Thermometer
Independent Tests of the Isotope Thermometer
Deuterium Excess
Ice-Core Isotopic Stratigraphy
References
10Be and Cosmogenic Radionuclides in Ice Cores
Introduction
Cosmogenic Radionuclide Basics
Applications
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Studies of Firn Air
Introduction
Firn Air Sampling
Physical Firn Structure and Transport Properties
Trace Gas Transport in the Firn
Dating of Firn Air and Reconstructing Recent Atmospheric Composition
Effects of Firn Air Transport on Ice Core Records
Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Ice Core Records
Africa
Meteorology of Equatorial East Africa
The Ice Core Records
Recent Retreat of East African Glaciers
References
Further Reading
Chinese, Tibetan Mountains
Introduction
Asian Versus Polar Ice-Core Records
Central Asian Ice Cores
Final Comments
References
South America
Introduction
The History of Ice-Core Drilling in the Andes
The Physical and Meteorological Setting of Tropical South America
Climate Records from Andean Glaciers
Future Priorities
References
Antarctic Stable Isotopes
Introduction
Modern Precipitation Isotopic Composition and the Isotopic Paleothermometer
Holocene Isotopic Records
Antarctic Isotopic Records over Glacial-Interglacial Cycles
Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Greenland Stable Isotopes
The Early Isotope Work
Shallow Ice Cores - The Role of Diffusion
Deep Ice Cores - Climate During 125 Millennia
References
Correlations Between Greenland and Antarctica
Introduction
Techniques
Comparing Greenlandic and Antarctic Ice Core Records on Common Chronologies
Statistics of Interpolar Comparisons
Implications and Directions for Future Work
References
Ice Margin Sites
Introduction
Meteorites
Volcanic Tephra Layers
Water Stable Isotope Records
Gas Records
Other Studies
Outlook and Ongoing Work
References
Thermal Diffusion Paleotemperature Records
Introduction
Controls on Isotopic Composition of Ice-Core Air
Measuring the Thermal Diffusion Trace
Interpretation of Observed Thermal Diffusion Trace
Direct Climate Change Reconstruction
References
Ice Cores
History of Research, Greenland and Antarctica
Introduction
Early Ice Core Projects
Recent Ice Core Projects
The Future of Polar Ice Core Research
References
Dynamics of the Greenland Ice Sheet
Introduction
Surface and Basal Topography
Surface and Basal Temperature
Surface Mass Balance
Discharge of Ice into the Ocean
Ice Deformation and Large-Scale Flow
Internal Stratigraphy
History of the Greenland Ice Sheet
Stability and Current Mass Balance
Acknowledgment
References
Dynamics of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet
Overview
Geographic and Geologic Setting
Theories of Marine-Based Ice Sheet Collapse
West Antarctic Ice-Sheet Dynamics
Important Timescales
A View of the Future
References
Dynamics of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet
References
History of Carbon Monoxide and Ultra-Trace Gases from Ice Cores
Introduction
Carbon Monoxide
Carbonyl Sulfide
Methyl Chloride
Methyl Bromide
Ice Core Air Extraction Methods
Considerations for Future Work
References
History of Nitrous Oxide from Ice Cores
Introduction
Analytical Techniques
Reliability of N2O Records from Polar Ice Cores
The Last Two Millennia
The Holocene
The Transition from the Last Glacial to the Holocene
The Last Glacial Epoch
Previous Interglacials
References
K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar Dating
Introduction
Historical Development of K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar Dating Methods
Principle of the Method and Age Calculation
Strengths and Weaknesses
New Perspectives
References
Lake Level Studies
Overview
Introduction
Reconstructing Past Lake-Level Change
Techniques for Lake-Level Reconstruction
Core Recovery and Sediment Classification
Oxygen-Isotope Analysis
Conclusions
References
Africa during the Late Quaternary
Introduction
African Lake Dynamics and Millennial-Scale Climate Change
High-Frequency (Centennial-Scale) Dynamics in African Lakes
Lake Level Change and Evolution: The Cichlid Fishes of African Lake
References
Asia
Asian Lake-Level Records
Historical Review of Asian Lake-Level Studies
Overview of Regional Asian Lake-Level Changes Through the Late Quaternary
Spatial Patterns of Asian Lake-Level Changes
Lake-Level Change and Paleoclimate Modeling
Recent Progress and Future Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
Australia
Introduction
Eastern Highland Tectonic Basins
Western Victorian Volcanic Lakes
Arid-Zone Lakes
Murray-Darling Basin
Lake Eyre Basin
Other Monsoon-Fed Terminal Lakes
Groundwater Lake/Playa Systems
Paleoclimatic Summary
References
Latin America
Background
Regional Examples
ENSO Records
Climate and Culture
References
North America
Introduction
Regional Lake-Level Histories
Continental-Scale Climate Variation
References
Relevant Website
West-Central Europe
Introduction
Study Area and Method of Lake-Level Reconstruction
The Regional Pattern of Holocene Lake-Level Fluctuations
Contrasting Patterns of Hydrological Changes in Europe
Variations in Climatic Variables Reflected by Changes in Lake Level
Toward a Better Understanding of the Forcing Factors
References
Modeling
Introduction
The Basis of Lake-Level Modeling
Lake Water Balance
Lake Energy Balance
Soil Moisture Balance
Discharge
Input Data
Modeling Strategies
Modeling Results
Simulation Analyses
Sensitivity Analyses
Effect of Lake Morphometry
Conclusions
References
Lichenometry
Origins of Lichenometry
Rationale and Assumptions
Approaches to Lichenometry
Relative Dating Using Lichens
Lichen Growth Rate Calibration
Lichen Growth Curves´ TheTraditional´ Approach to Lichenometry
Statistical Approaches to Lichenometry
Practical Suggestions and Concerns About Lichenometry
Future Directions in Lichenometry
References
Loess Deposits: Origins and Properties
Introduction
Definition of Loess
Spatial Distribution of Loess
Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Loess
Loess Origins: Processes of Silt Particle Formation
Loess Stratigraphy
Quaternary Paleoenvironmental Information from Loess Sequences
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Loess Records
Central Asia
References
China
Introduction
Loess in China
Monsoon Climate of Eastern Asia
Accretionary Paleosols
Loess/Paleosol Stratigraphy
Chronology of Loess and Paleosol Units
Comparison with the Marine Isotope Record
Variations in Grain Size and Thickness
Potential Upwind Source Regions
Downwind Transport and Deposition
Rates of Dust Influx
Late Quaternary Loess/Paleosol Record
Glacial-Interglacial Dust/Paleosol Model
High-Frequency Variations in the Dust Record
The Red Clay´ and the Onset of Loess Formation Erosion of Loess and Loss of Topsoil Environmental Hazards in the Loess Region References Europe Introduction Loess of Europe: The Material Loess of Europe: The Origin Paleosols and Their Stratigraphic Significance in the Loess of Europe Dating Loess in Europe: Geochronology Variability of Loess Sedimentation within a Single Glacial Period (Last Climatic Cycle) in Western Europe Paleoclimatic Proxies in European Loess European Loess as a Record of the Response of the Continental Environments to North Atlantic Climatic Variability Summary References North America Introduction Distribution and Thickness of Loess Deposits Stratigraphic Framework and Chronology of Loess Deposits Sources of Loess and Timing of Deposition Paleoclimatic Implications References South America Introduction Geographical Distribution The Pampean Loess and Loess-Like Record The Last Glacial Loess Record Paleoclimatic Significance of the Loess Record Conclusions References Luminescence Dating Thermoluminescence Mechanism Responsible for TL TL Dating Sample Collection and Preparation Environments Suitable for TL Dating Factors that Can Lead to an Inaccurate TL Age Recent Advances in TL Dating References Optical Dating Introduction The Mechanism Responsible for OSL Generating and Measuring OSL for Optical Dating Optical Dating Multiple-Aliquot Techniques Single-Aliquot Techniques Optical Dating Using Linear Modulation Optical Dating Using Pulsed Stimulation Sample Collection and Preparation, and Quartz or Feldspar? Environments Suitable for Optical Dating Factors that can Lead to an Inaccurate Optical Age References Relevant Website Electron Spin Resonance Dating Introduction Basic Principles Measurement of the Dose Value ESR Measurement Determination of the Dose Rate Measurement of Radioactive Elements and Isotopes Errors Applications of ESR Dating References Oribatid Mites Introduction Development of Quaternary Oribatid Studies Techniques and Methods Sectors of Application Acknowledgment References Paleobotany Overview of Terrestrial Pollen Data Some History Recent Developments Variable Scales: A Special Feature of Pollen Data Key Insights from Pollen Analysis The Way Ahead References Ancient Plant DNA Introduction The Recovery and Analysis of Ancient Plant DNA Source Materials Analyzed for Ancient Plant DNA The Scope of Ancient Plant DNA Forensic and Archaeological Uses Problems and Limitations of aDNA Studies Future Directions Conclusions References Charred Particle Analyses Introduction Study of Charred Particles Longer Term Perspectives Stratigraphic Charcoal Records Analysis of Sediment Charcoal Records Soil Charcoal Archaeological Charcoal Global Charcoal Database Future Directions Conclusions References Relevant Websites Paleophytogeography Introduction Impact of Ice Ages The Last Glacial Phase The Present Interglacial: The Holocene Future References Relevant Websites Silicon Isotopes in Diatoms Introduction Analytical Procedures Fluorination Multiple Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Acid Decomposition Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Fractionation of Silicon Isotopes During Diatom Growth Fractionation of Silicon Isotopes During Diatom Dissolution Factors Affecting Silicon Isotopes in Terrestrial Hydrological Systems Applications of δ30Sidiatom to Quaternary Marine Sediments δ30Sidiatom in Lakes and Lake Sediments Conclusion References Paleoceanography Paleoceanography An Overview Introduction Evolution During the Quaternary Glacial-Interglacial Cycles Millennial-Scale Variability During Glacial Times The Last Deglaciation Postglacial References Relevant Websites Paleoceanography, Biological Proxies Alkenone Paleothermometry Based on the Haptophyte Algae Introduction Chemical Structures Biological Origin Concluding Remarks Acknowledgment References Benthic Foraminifera Biology Ecology From Living to Fossil Benthic Foraminifera as Recorders of the Quaternary Applications References Biomarker Indicators of Past Climate Introduction Biomarker Proxies of Temperature Biomarker Proxies of Salinity The Highly Branched Isoprenoid Sea Ice Proxy (IP25) Summary References Coccolithophores Introduction Biology Ecology Coccolith Production and Accumulation Mechanisms Coccolithophores as Paleoceanographic Indicators How Do Coccolithophores Affect the Climate System? Pleistocene Biostratigraphy and Biochronology References Relevant Websites Corals, Sclerosponges and Mollusks Glossary Introduction Corals Sclerosponges Mollusks Summary References Dinoflagellates Introduction Ecology of Dinoflagellates The Life Cycle of Dinoflagellates and the Cyst Stage The Taxonomy and General Morphology of Dinoflagellates and Dinocysts The Organic-Walled Dinoflagellate Cysts or Dinocysts in the Marine Realm Applications of Marine Dinocysts in Quaternary Sciences Conclusion References Marine Diatoms Introduction Paleoecology/Paleoceanography Planktic Foraminifera Description Historical Background Classification Geographic Distribution of Living Planktic Foraminifera Seafloor Distribution of Planktic Foraminifera Tests Stratigraphic Distribution and Biostratigraphy Applications to Paleoceanography and Oceanic Paleoclimatology References Radiolarians and Silicoflagellates Introduction Radiolarians Silicoflagellates Acknowledgment References Relevant Website Temperature Proxies, Census Counts Introduction Ecological Basis Validity of Assumptions Approaches Morphotypes Versus Genotypes Classes of Microfossil-Based Paleotemperature Proxy Methods Imbrie-Kipp Transfer Function Method Modern Analog Methods: MAT, SIMMAX, RAM Artificial Neural Networks Selected Case Studies Controversies References Paleoceanography, Physical and Chemical Proxies Carbon Cycle Proxies (δ11B, δ13Ccalcite, δ13Corganic, Shell Weights, B/Ca, U/Ca, Zn/Ca, Ba/Ca) Introduction Carbon Cycle Proxies Conclusions Acknowledgment References Dissolution of Deep-Sea Carbonates Introduction Global Distribution of Deep-Sea Carbonates Thermodynamics of the Carbonate System in Seawater Mechanisms of Carbonate Dissolution Shape of the Sedimentary Lysocline Quantifying the Extent of Dissolution Changes in Carbonate Dissolution through Time References Relevant Website Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca Paleothermometry from Calcareous Marine Fossils Introduction Thermodynamic Effects on Mg and Sr Coprecipitation in Carbonates Foraminiferal Mg/Ca Paleothermometry Marine Ostracode Mg/Ca Paleothermometry Coralline Sr/Ca Paleothermometry References Magnetic Proxies and Susceptibility Introduction: Magnetic Susceptibility and Environmental Magnetism in Paleoceanography What Is MS? Influences on MS Values MS Measurement MS Measurement Systems Environmental Records of Susceptibility MS as a Paleoceanographic Proxy Conclusions References Relevant Websites Nutrient Proxies Introduction Carbon-13 Trace Metals: Cadmium, Barium, and Zinc Nitrogen-15 References Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy of the Oceans Introduction Oxygen Stable Isotopes in Marine Carbonate to Remains: A Brief Overview Pleistocene Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy: Early Works Developing a Timescale for the Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy State of the Art and Limits of the MarineOxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy References Oxygen Isotope Composition of Seawater Introduction Natural Abundance, Measurement, and Physicochemical Behavior Processes Controlling Oxygen Isotope Ratios in Seawater Oxygen Isotope Ratios in Seawaters of the Quaternary References Radioisotope Proxies Introduction General Applications of Radioisotopes Applications of Radioisotope Tracers in Quaternary Paleoceanography Paleoceanographic Applications Based on the Activity of 230Th in Marine Sediments Paleoceanographic Applications Based on 231Pa Activities in Marine Sediments 231Pa/230Th in Atlantic Sediments 231Pa/230Th in Pacific Sediments Why is the Interpretation of Sediment 231Pa/230Th Different in the Atlantic and the Pacific? Conclusions References Salinity Proxies δ18O Introduction Reconstructing Past Salinity Variations (with an Emphasis on the Quaternary)Current´ Methods of Reconstructing Past Salinity
Quaternary δ18O Water Variations: An Example from the Tropical Pacific
References
Terrigenous Sediments
Introduction
Provenance (Lithologic Source)
Sedimentary Processes
Application of Terrigenous Sediments in Paleoceanography
Tools
References
Volume 3
Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science
Copyright
Dedications
Russell Coope
Bill Watts
Aleksis Dreimanis
Foreword
Introduction
Editorial Advisory Board
Contributors
How to Use the Encyclopedia
1. Contents list by subject
2. Alphabetical contents list
Example
3. Cross-references
Example
4. Index
5. Contributors
Contents List by Subject
Introduction and History of Science
Paleoclimatology
Overview and Approaches
Dating Techniques
Radiometric Methods
Geomagnetic Excursions and Secular Variations in theMagnetic Field
Biological Methods
Annual Layer Methods
Chemical Methods
Quaternary Stratigraphy
Quaternary Glaciation
Glacial Landforms
Permafrost and Periglacial Features
Tree-ring section
Fluvial Environments
History of Quaternary Glaciations
Sea Level Studies
Paleosols and Wind-Blown Sediments
Paleosol Research
Dune Studies
Loess Studies
Lake Level Studies
Paleobotany
Overview
Pollen Studies
Charred article Analysis
Quaternary Pollen Records
Phytoliths
Ancient Plant DNA
Plant Macrofossil Studies
Plant Macrofossil Records
Diatom Studies
Paleolimnology
Vertebrate Studies
Insect Fossil Studies
Beetle Studies
Paleoceanography
Paleoceanographic Studies
Paleoceanographic Records
Ice Core Studies
Ice Core Studies
Ice Core Records
Stable Isotope Research - Carbonates
Humans in the Quaternary
Use of Quaternary proxies in forensic science
Contents
Paleoceanography, Records
Early Pleistocene
Introduction
Stratigraphy of the Early Pleistocene
Ice-Volume and Sea-Level Changes
Paleotemperature Changes
Thermohaline Circulation Changes
From 41 to 100 ka: The Mid-Pleistocene Transition
Millennial-Scale Dynamics in the Early Pleistocene?
Conclusions
References
Relevant Website
Late Pleistocene North Atlantic
Modern Surface and Deep Circulation of the North Atlantic
Evolution During The Pleistocene
Glacial-Interglacial Cycles
Millennial-Scale Variability
The Last Deglaciation
References
Late Pleistocene South Atlantic
Introduction
Present-Day Circulation of the South Atlantic
Late Quaternary Surface-Water Records
Upper Ocean Stratification and Thermocline Depth
Coastal Upwelling
Late Quaternary Intermediate- and Deep-Water Records
Conclusions
References
Late Pleistocene North Pacific
Introduction
Oceanographic Setting
Occurrence of Paleoceanographic Records
The Paleoceanographic Record
References
Postglacial Indian Ocean
Introduction
Pre- and Postglacial Changes
Monsoon Variability
Dipole
Productivity Variations
Oxygen Minimum Zone Variability
Conclusions
References
Postglacial North Atlantic
Introduction
SST Variations
Ocean Circulation Variations
Conclusions
References
Postglacial North Pacific
Introduction
Paleoceanographic Records from the Equatorial Pacific Ocean: The EEP and the Cold Tongue
Paleoceanographic Records from the IPWP, the Kuroshio Current, and the Subarctic Gyre
Paleoceanographic Records from the NEP
The ENSO System at Millennial Timescales
Summary
References
Postglacial South Pacific
Introduction
Oceanographic and Climatic Setting
Continental Margin Records
Open Ocean Records
Forcing Mechanisms
References
Paleoclimate
Introduction
Introduction, Why Study Paleoclimatology?
Some Recent Developments in Paleoclimatology
Organization of the Articles
References
Timescales of Climate Change
Introduction
Climate Variations
The Spectrum of Climate Variability
Characteristic Kinds of Climate Variability
Summary
References
Modern Analog Approaches in Paleoclimatology
Introduction
Environment-to-Circulation Approaches
Circulation-to-Environment Approaches
Discussion and Conclusion
References
Paleoclimate History of the Arctic
Early Cenozoic Warm Times
Pliocene Warmth and the Transition into Quaternary Ice-Age Cycles
The Early Quaternary
The Mid-Pleistocene Transition: 41 and 100 ka Worlds
A Link Between Ice Volume, Air Temperature, and Greenhouse Gases
Marine Isotopic Stage 11 - A Long Interglaciation
Marine Isotopic Stage 5e: The Last Interglaciation
Marine Isotopic Stage 3 (70-30 ka): Rapid Climate Oscillations
Marine Isotopic Stage 2 (30-15 ka): The LGM
Marine Isotopic Stage 1, The Holocene
Placing Twentieth Century Arctic Warming in a Millennial Perspective
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
The Younger Dryas Climate Event
Introduction
Extent of the Younger Dryas
Ocean Circulation During the Younger Dryas
The Cause of the Younger Dryas
References
Paleoclimate Modeling
Data-Model Comparisons
Introduction
History of Data-Model Comparisons
Requirements for Data Syntheses for Data-Model Comparison
Requirements for Data-Model Comparisons
Requirements for Model Benchmarking
Existing Paleoenvironmental Data sets for Data-Model Comparison
References
Relevant Websites
Quaternary Environments
Introduction
Assessing Model Applicability
Designing Models and Experiments
Conclusions
References
The Last Interglacial
Introduction
Boundary Conditions
Seasonal Responses
Annual Mean SAT Response and Globally Averaged Temperatures
Ocean Circulation Changes
Conclusions and Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
Last Glacial Maximum GCMs
Introduction
Types of GCMs
Design of GCM Experiments
Results from GCM Experiments
Future Directions
References
Paleo-ENSO
Introduction
Teleconnections
Reconstruction of ENSO
Regional Paleoclimatic Responses of Past El Niños and Climatic Forcing Mechanisms
Conclusions
References
Paleoclimate Reconstruction
Approaches
Introduction
Proxies: Where Does Our Data Come From?
Qualitative Approaches
Quantitative Approaches
Synthesis
References
Pliocene Environments
Introduction
Warm Climates of the Early Pliocene
Mechanisms for Pliocene Warmth
Intensification of NHG
Cause of NHG
Links Between NHG and Human Evolution
References
Paleodroughts and Society
Introduction
Paleoclimatic Proxies of Past Drought
Climatic Forcing Mechanisms of Past Drought
Impacts of Paleodrought on Past Societies
Conclusions
References
Relevant Website
Sub-Milankovitch (DO/Heinrich) Events
High-Latitude Signals
Low-Latitude Signals
Millennial Changes in Deep- and Intermediate-Ocean Hydrography
North-South Linkage
Mechanisms of Millennial Climate Change: Modeling Efforts
References
Paleotempestology
Introduction
Geological Proxy Records
Historical Documentary Records
Research Needs and Future Research Directions
References
Younger Dryas Oscillation, Global Evidence
Introduction
The Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas
Is There Evidence for a Younger Dryas Oscillation in the Southern Hemisphere?
Conclusions
References
The Last Millennium
Large-Scale Temperature Trends
Regional Climate Changes
Changes in Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation
Theoretical Modeling Results
References
Historical Climatology
Introduction
Potential and Limitations of Historical Documents
Sources and Repositories of Documentary Materials
Types of Documentary Materials
Methods of Historical Climatology Research
Suggestions for Future Research
References
Paleoclimate Relevance to Global Warming
Anthropogenic Climate Change
Climate Processes
Climate Modeling and the Paleoclimatic Record
Conclusions
References
Paleohydrology
Introduction
Long-Term Sediment Transport and Storage
Flood Response to Holocene Climatic Variability
Drivers of Change
Summary
References
Paleolimnology
Overview of Paleolimnology
Introduction
Lake as Archives
The Paleolimnological Method
New Developments/Conclusions
References
Cladocera
Introduction
From Living Animal to a Subfossil Remain
The Indicator Value of the Cladocera
Applications of Subfossil Cladocera in Aquatic Research
Conclusions
References
Freshwater Mollusks
Introduction
Taxonomy
Paleolimnological Reconstructions
Stable Isotopes
Taphonomy
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Lake Chemistry
Introduction
Acidification
Eutrophication
Salinity
Dissolved Organic Carbon
Trace Metals
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Summary
References
Physical Properties of Lake Sediments
Physical Properties of Lacustrine Sediments
Magnetic Properties
Grain Size
Bulk Density
Early Diagenesis
Future Research
References
Contributions of Paleolimnological Research to Biogeography
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Pigment Studies
Introduction
Pigments as Biomarkers
Structure and Nature of Pigments
Analysis
Preservation in Aquatic Environments
Pigments in Quaternary Deposits
Conclusions
References
Multiproxy Approaches
Introduction
Multiple Proxies to Obtain a Holistic Approach to Paleolimnological Reconstructions
Multiple Proxies to Identify Stressors and Effects
Multiple Proxies to Resolve Competing Hypotheses of Environmental Change
Multiple Proxies to Detect Differential Limnological Responses in Spatially Separated Lake Habitats
Multiple Proxies to Track Multiple Environmental Stressors
Conclusions
References
Visible and Infrared Spectroscopical Applications
Introduction
Theoretical Background
Sample Preparation and Statistical Approaches in VIS and IR Spectroscopy
VNIRS Applications for the Qualitative and Quantitative Inference of Sediment Properties
MIRS Applications for the Qualitative and Quantitative Inference of Sediment Constituents
References
Paleosols and Wind-Blown Sediments
Overview
Introduction
Eolian Sand in the Quaternary
Loess in the Quaternary
Fine-Grained Eolian Sediments in the Quaternary
Soils and Paleosols in Quaternary Records
Conclusion
References
Nature of Paleosols
Introduction
Issues of Terminology
Recognition of Paleosols
Paleosols as Stratigraphic Markers and Numerical Dating of Paleosols
Inference of Paleoenvironments from Paleosol Morphology
Aggradational Pedogenesis and Postburial Alteration of Paleosols
Magnetic and Geochemical Proxy Data from Quaternary Paleosols
Future Directions in Quaternary Paleosol Research
References
Mineral Magnetic Analysis
Introduction
Interpretation of Magnetic Properties
Frequency Dependence
Natural Remanent Magnetization, Anhysteretic Remanent Magnetization, and Saturation Isothermal Remanent Magnetization
Conclusions
References
Soil Micromorphology
Micromorphology and the Identification of Buried Soils
Paleoenvironmental Significance of Micromorphological Features Within Buried Soils
Calcite Coatings and Infillings
Iron, Manganese, and Aluminum Coatings
Anthropogenic Features
Clay and Silt Coatings
Microstratigraphic Relations Within Paleosols
Micromorphological Reconstructions of Pedosedimentary and Landscape Evolution
References
Weathering Profiles
Introduction
Weathering Processes
Weathering Zones
Spatial Patterns of Weathering Profiles
Dating Weathering Profiles
Applications
Conclusions
References
Soil Morphology in Quaternary Studies
Introduction
The Relation of Soil Properties and Soil-Forming Processes
Soil Morphology Studies and the State Factor (CLORPT) Approach
Relations Between Soil Morphology and Soil Age
Selected Examples of Time-Dependent Changes and Applications in Quaternary Studies
Relations of Soil Morphology and Climate
Soil Morphology and Quaternary Deposits
Quantitative Evaluation of Soil Morphological Development: Soil Profile Indices
The Future of Soil Morphology Studies in Quaternary Science
References
Biogeochemical Role of Dust in Quaternary Climate Cycles
Introduction
Dust as a Link Between Land, Atmosphere, and Sea
Land-Dust Emissions
Atmosphere - The Impact of Dust on the Radiative Budget in the Past, Present, and Future
Sea-Dust as a Fertilizer
Implications for Future Changes in the Dust Cycle
Conclusion
References
Permafrost and Periglacial Features
Active Layer Processes
The Active Layer
Physical Processes
Active-Layer Thickness
The Transition Zone
The Active Layer and Climate Change
Concluding Comments
References
Relevant Websites
Cryoturbation Structures
Introduction
Classification of Cryoturbations
The Origin of Cryoturbations
Paleoclimatic Significance
Redistribution of Organic Material as a Result of Cryoturbation
Conclusion
References
Ice Wedges and Ice-Wedge Casts
Introduction
Thermal Contraction Cracking
Primary Infilling
Secondary Infilling
Paleoenvironmental Significance of Veins and Wedges
Conclusions
References
Patterned Ground
Introduction
Sorted Patterned Ground
Nonsorted Patterned Ground
Conclusion
References
Permafrost
Introduction
Thermal Regime
Aggradation and Degradation
Ground Surface Temperature
Distribution
Ground Ice
Ice Wedges
Lakes
Hillslopes
Other Landforms
Permafrost and Climate Change
References
Frost Mounds: Active and Relict Forms
Introduction
Modern-Day Frost Mounds
Relict Frost Mounds
Recent Developments in Frost-Mound Research
References
Slope Deposits and Forms
Significance of Ground Freezing and Thawing
Slow Mass Movement
Rapid Mass Movements
Relict Periglacial Slope Deposits
Cambering and Associated Structures
Periglacial Slope Evolution
References
Periglacial Fluvial Sediments and Forms
Introduction
Landforms and Processes
Pleistocene Periglacial Environments
Future Perspective
References
Rock Weathering
Mechanical Weathering Processes
Chemical Weathering Processes
Biological Weathering Processes
Weathering Rates
Weathering Products
Conclusions
References
Permafrost and Glacier Interactions
Introduction
The Nature, Formation, and Extent of Permafrost in Glacial Environments
Basal Processes Beneath Cold-Based Ice
Geomorphological Evidence
Geological Evidence
Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
Block/Rock Streams
Introduction
Geographical Distribution of Block Streams
Characteristics of Block Streams
Thermal Regime of Active Block Streams
Processes of Block-Stream Formation
Rates of Movement of Active Block Streams
Climatic and Paleoclimatic Significance of Block Streams
Age of Relict Block Streams
References
Blockfields (Felsenmeer)
Introduction
Blockfield Characteristics
Age and Origin
Implications for Ice Geometry and Dynamics
Dating Blockfields
Conclusion
References
Rock Glaciers and Protalus Forms
Definition and Distribution
Thermal Conditions
Composition
Kinematics and Advance
Shape and Surface Morphology
Activity and Age
Environmental Change and Climatic Significance
References
Yedoma: Late Pleistocene Ice-Rich Syngenetic Permafrost of Beringia
Introduction
Terminology
Distribution
Cryolithology
Fossils and Paleoenvironmental Archives
Formation Processes
Conclusion
References
Paraglacial Geomorphology
Introduction and Definition
Theory
Paraglacial Land Systems
Wider Implications of Paraglacial Landscape Modification
References
Talus Slopes
Introduction
Rock Fall and Rockfall Talus
Modification of Talus Forms
Rates of Development
Paleoenvironmental Significance
References
Thermokarst Topography
Introduction
Permafrost and the Active Layer
Near-Surface Ground Ice
Disturbances to Permafrost
Permafrost Degradation
Thermokarst Lakes
Retrogressive Thaw Slumps
Active-Layer Detachments
Sedimentary Record
Thermokarst and Climate Change
References
Phytoliths
What Are Phytoliths?
Phytolith Formation
Phytolith Composition, Characteristics, and Function
Phytolith Morphology
Phytolith Analytical Techniques
Phytoliths and Chronology
Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction Using Phytolith Analysis
Phytoliths in Archaeological Research
References
Relevant Websites
Plant Macrofossil Introduction
Introduction
What Is a Plant Macrofossil?
Why Study Plant Macrofossils?
Where Are Macrofossils Found?
How Do We Sample Plant Macrofossils?
How Do We Do Plant Macrofossil Analysis?
Identification of Macrofossils
How Do We Interpret Plant Macrofossil Data?
Plant Macrofossils in Paleoecology
Macrofossils in Vegetation History
Situations Where Pollen Is Uninformative
Other Applications of Macrofossil Analysis
The Remarkable Versatility of Salix herbacea
How Will Plant Macrofossil Analysis Develop in the Future?
References
Relevant Websites
Plant Macrofossil Methods and Studies
CO2 Reconstruction from Fossil Leaves
Introduction
Basis of the Method
Outline of the Method
Overview of CO2 Reconstructions Based on Stomatal Frequency
Potential and Limitations of the Method
References
Megafossils
Introduction
Current Treeline Location, Vegetation, and Climatic Controls
Wood Megafossil Analysis and the Interpretation of Past Treeline Shifts
Studies From Selected Regions
References
Dendroarchaeology
Introduction
Dendroarchaeological Date Attributes
Chronological Information from Dendroarchaeological Samples
Environmental Information from Dendroarchaeological Samples
Behavioral Information from Dendroarchaeological Samples
Conclusions
References
Mire and Peat Macros
Introduction
Applications
Methods
Macrofossil Indicator Value and Descriptions of Northwest European Mire and Peat Macrofossils
Conclusions
References
Paleolimnological Applications
The Role of Macrophytes in a Lake Ecosystem and Factors Affecting Their Distribution in a Lake
Examples of Plant Macrofossil Analysis in Paleolimnological Studies
References
Rodent Middens
Introduction
North American Packrat Middens
Regional Studies
Major Implications of Packrat Midden Studies
Summary
References
Surface Samples, Taphonomy, Representation
Surface Sample Studies
Aquatic Seed Bank Studies
Macrofossil Production
Taphonomy
Representation
Conclusion
References
Treeline Studies
Introduction
Reconstructing Treelines by Using Macrofossils
Late-Glacial Treeline Dynamics
Holocene Treeline Dynamics
Fossil Evidence and Models: Linking the Past to the Future
Acknowledgments
References
Use in Environmental Archaeology
Introduction
Methodological Basics
Some Examples of Results
Applying Biological Evidence to Economic Questions
Some Other Aspects of Archaeobotanical Research
References
Validation of Pollen Studies
Vegetation-Sensing Properties of Pollen and Plant Macrofossil Data
Macrofossil and Pollen Representation Within and Among Depositional Environments
Data Expression
Tandem Applications of Pollen and Plant Macrofossil Data
Future Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Plant Macrofossil Records
Arctic Eurasia
Arctic Eurasia
The Arctic Today
Quaternary Key Sites in Arctic Eurasia
Quaternary Vegetation History
Reconstruction of Quaternary Vegetation
Discussion
References
Arctic North America
Northern Climate and Landscapes
Summary of Macrofossil Sites
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Greenland
Introduction
The Kap København Formation
The Last Interglacial
The Last Ice Age
Holocene Vegetation Development
Colonization of Greenland
References
Holocene North America
Introduction
Northeastern Iowa
Southeastern Minnesota
Southeastern Nebraska
Southwestern Indiana
Southwestern Missouri
Reconstruction of the Prairie-Forest Ecotone
References
Late Glacial Multidisciplinary Studies
Qualitative Reconstruction of Past Environments
Quantitative Reconstruction of Climate Change in the Late Glacial: The Role of Plant Macrofossils
Biotic Response to Climate Change
References
Pollen Analysis, Principles
Introduction
Origin of Pollen and Spores
Sedimentation and Preservation
Plant-Pollen Representation
Pollen Dispersal and Model-Based Correction Approaches
Applications of Pollen Analysis
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Pollen Methods and Studies
Use of Pollen as Climate Proxies
Introduction
Methods Based on Similarity
Methods Based on Calibration
Examples of Paleoclimate Reconstruction from Pollen Data
Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Reconstructing Past Biodiversity Development
Introduction
Measuring Biodiversity
Biases in Fossil Records of Biodiversity
Interpreting Records of Sample Diversity
References
Numerical Analysis Methods
Introduction
Data Collection and Data Assessment
Data Summarization
Data Analysis
Data Interpretation
Software and Computing
Future Developments
References
Databases and Their Application
Introduction
Database History
Database Structure
Quality Control
Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Database Applications
Conclusions
References
Surface Samples and Trapping
Pollen Surface Samples and Pollen Trapping
Data Applications
References
Relevant Website
Stand-Scale Palynology
Introduction
History
Pollen Representation Theory
Types of Sites
Insights from Case Studies
Conclusions
References
Changing Plant Distributions and Abundances
Introduction
How to Gain Knowledge About the Spreading of Plants
Examples of Late Quaternary Plant Spreading
Speed and Pattern: How Did It Work?
Distribution Versus Abundance
Factors Influencing the Spread of Trees and Changes in Abundance
Conclusion
References
The Biome Approach to Reconstructing Past Vegetation
Introduction: Reconstructing Late Quaternary Vegetation at Large Spatial Scales
The Biome Approach
Global Vegetation Patterns at 18000 and 6000 14C years BP (18 and 6ka)
Historical Biogeography: Migrations, Refugia, and Novel Biomes
Climate-Model Evaluations Using Biomized Data
Current Developments and Future Directions
References
POLLSCAPE Model: Simulation Approach for Pollen Representation of Vegetation and Land Cover
Introduction
POLLSCAPE: A Simulation Framework for a Better Understanding of the Pollen–Vegetation Relationships in Vegetation with Com...
On the Source Area of Pollen
Other Insights from POLLSCAPE Simulations
POLLSCAPE and Quantitative Reconstruction of Past Vegetation
References
Archaeological Applications
Introduction
What Questions?
Approaches to Reconstruction of Past Human Impact from Pollen Data
Conclusions and Prospects
References
Further Reading
Volume 4
ENCYCLOPEDIA OFQUATERNARY SCIENCE
Copyright
DEDICATIONS
Russell Coope
Bill Watts
Aleksis Dreimanis
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
CONTRIBUTORS
HOW TO USE THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
1. Contents list by subject
2. Alphabetical contents list
Example
3. Cross-references
Example
4. Index
5. Contributors
CONTENTS LIST BY SUBJECT
Introduction and History of Science
Paleoclimatology
Overview and Approaches
Paleoclimate Reconstructions
Climate Forcing Mechanisms
Climate Modelling
Dating Techniques
Radiometric Methods
Geomagnetic Excursions and Secular Variations in theMagnetic Field
Biological Methods
Annual Layer Methods
Chemical Methods
Quaternary Stratigraphy
Quaternary Glaciation
Glacial Landforms
Permafrost and Periglacial Features
Tree-ring section
Fluvial Environments
History of Quaternary Glaciations
Sea Level Studies
Paleosols and Wind-Blown Sediments
Paleosol Research
Dune Studies
Loess Studies
Lake Level Studies
Paleobotany
Overview
Paleolimnology
Vertebrate Studies
Insect Fossil Studies
Beetle Studies
Chironomid Studies
Oribatid Mite Studies
Paleoceanography
Paleoceanographic Studies
Ice Core Studies
Stable Isotope Research – Carbonates
Humans in the Quaternary
Use of Quaternary proxies in forensic science
Contents
Pollen Records, Last Interglacial of Europe
Introduction
Depositional Environments and Vegetation Development
Duration and Timing of Events
Vegetation Character and Comparisons with the Holocene
References
Pollen Records, Late Pleistocene
Africa
Introduction
Tropical Rainforests
The Afromontane Region
Savanna Woodlands and Grasslands
Arid and Semiarid Biomes
Mediterranean-Climate Regions
Conclusions
References
Australasia
Introduction
Nature of the Data
New Zealand
South-Eastern Australia
Northern Australia
General Discussion
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
Northern Asia
Introduction
MIS 2 (Sartanskaya Stade)
MIS 3 (Karginski Interstade)
MIS 5 (Mid- and Lower Ermakovski and Kazantsevskoye Stages, Western and Eastern Siberia; Kazantsevskoye Stage, Northeast S...
References
Northern North America
Introduction
Summary of Pollen Records in Northern North America
Discussion and Conclusions: LGM and Holocene Thermal Maximum Vegetation
Conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
South America
General Setting of South America for Paleoecological Studies
Long Pollen Records, Biome Evolution, and Nonanalog Vegetation Communities
Late Pleistocene Dynamics of the Northern Andes
Pollen Record from the Colombian Savannas
How Stable/Dynamic is the Amazonian Rainforest? The Pollen Evidence
References
Middle and Late Pleistocene in Southern Europe
Introduction
History of Research
Trends in Vegetation Dynamics
Conclusion
References
Western North America
Introduction
Late Pleistocene Pollen Records
Summary
References
Africa
Introduction
Evidence of Past Atmospheric Circulation: Influx Values in Marine Pollen Sequences off West Africa
Evidence of Past Rainfall Variations: Fresh-Water Algae Record in Marine Pollen Sequences off West Africa
Vegetation Response to Enhanced Monsoon Circulation and Global Warming at the Onset of the Last Deglaciation
The End of the African Humid Period
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Australia and New Zealand
Introduction
Lead-up to the Last Glacial Maximum
Recovery from the LGM
Patterns of Change in the Holocene in Australia
Patterns of Change in the Holocene in New Zealand
Anthropogenic Impacts
Some Outstanding Questions
References
Northeastern North America
Introduction
Climate and Physiography
History of Palynological Research in NENA
NENA Vegetational History
Climatic Controls on New England Vegetation History
Summary
References
Relevant Websites
Northwestern North America
Introduction
Broad Patterns of Climate and Vegetation
Alaska
Marine West Coast Forest
Western Cordillera
Cold Deserts
Conclusions
References
Southeastern North America
Introduction
Modern Forest Distribution and Composition in the Southeastern United States
Pollen Signature of Modern Vegetation
Quaternary Palynological Records from Lakes, Estuaries, and Wetlands of the Southeastern United States
Implications for Future Research
References
Southwestern North America
Landscape and Climate
Pollen Records
The Data
Vegetation and Climate History of the North American West and Southwest
References
South America
Introduction
Amazon Rainforest and Coastal Mangroves
Amazon Rainforest and the Neighboring Savannas
Caatinga in Northeastern Brazil
Cerrado, Semideciduous Forest, and Atlantic Rainforest of Southeastern Brazil
Araucaria Forest and Campos of Southern Brazil
Pampa of Argentina
Andes in South America
References
Relevant Website
Northern Asia
Introduction
The Ural Mountains
West Siberia
Kazakhstan
Central Siberia
East Siberia
South Siberia
Mongolia
Northeastern Asia
Conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
Northern Europe
Introduction
Chronologies
The Postglacial Pollen Record
Current Research Challenges
Summary
References
Relevant Websites
Southern Europe
The Current State of Knowledge of Postglacial Pollen Records of Southern Europe
Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands
Southern France, Andorra, and Corsica
Peninsular Italy and Sicily
Southern Balkan Peninsula, Dalmatian Islands and Crete
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Quaternary Stratigraphy
Overview
Introduction
Stratigraphic Correlation: Principles and Methods
Stratigraphy by Numbers?
Marine-Terrestrial Correlation
Conclusion
References
Continental Biostratigraphy
Introduction
The Quaternary Changes in Flora and Fauna
Biostratigraphical Subdivision of the Quaternary
Concluding Remarks
References
Chronostratigraphy
Introduction
Defining the Quaternary
The Gelasian Stage
The Pleistocene Series
Subdivision of the Pleistocene Series
Holocene Series
Local Chronostratigraphic Units and Time Scales
Chronostratigraphic Markers
Finer Subdivision of the Quaternary Using Marine Isotope Stages
Astronomical Timescale
References
Climatostratigraphy
Terminology
Boundaries
Climatostratigraphic Units are not Chronostratigraphic Units
Nomenclatural Complexities
Global Correlation
References
Lithostratigraphy
Introduction
Lithostratigraphic Classification
Examples from the Quaternary Record
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Morphostratigraphy/Allostratigraphy
Morphostratigraphy
Allostratigraphy
Morphostratigraphy and Allostratigraphy in Practice
References
Pedostratigraphy
Introduction
Definitions
Selected Milestones in Pedostratigraphy
Problems with Nomenclature
Geosols
The Application of Pedostratigraphy to Paleoclimatology and Correlation
Tephra Sequences
Alluvial Sequences
Conclusions
References
Sequence Stratigraphy
Introduction
Sequence Stratigraphic Models
Five Fundamental Sequence-Bounding and Intrasequence Surfaces
Parasequences
Seven Empirical Orders of Sea-Level Cyclicity
Sequence Stratigraphy in Quaternary Sediments
Eustasy as the Dominant Control on Sediment Deposition
Sedimentary Facies Analysis
Quaternary Sequences
Astronomical Calibration
Summary
References
Tephrochronology
Introduction
Early Studies: Pioneers of Tephrochronology
Characteristics of Tephra
Chronology
Applications of Tephrochronology
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Radiocarbon Dating
Conventional Method
Introduction
Solid-Source Counting
Liquid Scintillation Counting
Gas Proportional Counting
Radiometric 14C Age and Error Calculations
References
AMS Radiocarbon Dating
Symbols
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Fundamentals
New Trends: Smaller and Smaller Machines
References
Sources of Error
Errors and Uncertainties in Radiocarbon Dating
The Nature of Measurement and Uncertainty
Measurement Uncertainty and Error
Accuracy and Precision
Uncertainty from Sampling
Stochastic Models
Estimating μ and σ
Estimating Uncertainty
How Do We Know Whether the Uncertainty Estimate Is Realistic?
Interlaboratory Collaborative Trials
Calibration
References
Variations in Atmospheric 14C
Production
The Holocene
The Deglaciation
The Middle/Upper Paleolithic
The Anthropogenic Era
Conclusion
References
Causes of Temporal 14C Variations
Introduction
Definitions
Natural Radiocarbon Variations
Anthropogenic Radiocarbon Variations
References
Calibration of the 14C Record
Introduction
Calibration and Comparison Records
Calibration Curves
Calibration Methods
Problems and Uncertainties in Calibration
Future of Calibration
Conclusions
References
Charcoal
Introduction
Charcoal´: Definitions, Structure, and Chemistry Charcoal Stability Charcoal Contamination Sampling Charcoal for Radiocarbon Dating Pretreatment of Charcoal for Radiocarbon Dating Conclusion: Interpretation of Radiocarbon Dates on Charcoal References 14C of Plant Macrofossils Introduction Archaeological ContextsOld Wood´ Effect
Volcanic Area
Soil and (Dry) Sediment
Bioturbation and Mechanic Disturbance
Phytoliths
Pollen
Lacustrine and Palustrine Records
Algae and Aquatic Moss Macrofossils
Terrestrial Plant Macrofossils
Toward Specific Compounds
Reminders and Suggestions
Conclusion
References
Sea Level Studies
Overview
Introduction
General Principles
Sea-Level Index Points and Reconstructions of Relative Sea Level
Sea-Level Changes: Local to Global
References
GeomorphologicalIndicators
Introduction
Depositional Features Associated with Erosion Marks
References
Sedimentary Indicators of Relative Sea-Level Changes - High Energy
Introduction: Definition of High-Energy Coasts
Sea-Level Indicators on High-Energy Coasts
Sedimentary Response to Sea-Level Change
Sedimentary Indicators of Relative Sea-Level Change: Transgression and Regression
Preservation Potential
Quaternary High-Energy Shorelines and Sea-Level Indicators
References
Sedimentary Indicators of Relative Sea-Level Changes - Low Energy
Introduction
Low-Energy Sedimentary Environments
Reconstructing RSL Change From Low-Energy Sedimentary Environments
Concluding Remarks
References
Coral Records of Relative Sea-Level Changes
Coral and Sea Level
Quaternary Sea-Level Highstands
Postglacial Sea-Level Rise
Holocene Sea-Level Variations
Microatolls and Interannual Variations in Sea Level
References
Microfossil-Based Reconstructions of Holocene Relative Sea-Level Change
Introduction
Microfossil Groups Used in Sea-Level Studies
Methods of Microfossil-Based Sea-Level Reconstruction
Transfer Functions
Chronologies
Conclusions
References
Eustatic Sea-Level Changes - Glacial-Interglacial Cycles
Introduction
The Nature of Glacial-Interglacial Cycles
High-Frequency Sea-Level Changes and Heinrich Events in the Last Glacial Cycle
Evidence for Glacioeustatic Sea-Level Changes Prior to the LGM
Eustatic Sea-Level Changes Since the Last Glacial Maximum
Introduction
The Sea-Level Equation
GIA Modeling
Sea-Level Changes During the Late Glacial
Sea-Level Changes During the Holocene
Sea-Level Changes During the Late Holocene
References
Isostasy: Glaciation-Induced Sea-Level Change
Introduction
Physical Principles of Glaciation-Induced Sea-Level Change
Applications of Isostatic Sea-Level Models
Conclusion
References
Use of Cave Data in Sea-Level Reconstructions
Introduction
Speleothem Growth: Providing Upper Bounds on Sea-Level Position
Marine Submergence: Providing Lower Bounds on Sea-Level Position
Phreatic Overgrowths: Tracking Sea-Level Position
Additional Considerations
Conclusions
References
Late Quaternary Relative Sea-Level Changes in High Latitudes
Introduction
RSL Change in High Latitudes: Controls and Patterns
Case Studies of Late Quaternary RSL Change in High Latitudes
References
Late Quaternary Sea-Level Changes in Greenland
Overview of the Greenland Ice Sheet
RSL Curves and Types of Evidence Found in Greenland During Interglacials
Greenland Ice Sheet Through Time
Conclusions
References
Late Quaternary Relative Sea-Level Changes at Mid-Latitudes
Introduction
Late Quaternary Sea Levels
Conclusion
References
Late Quaternary Relative Sea-Level Changes in the Tropics
Introduction
Sea-Level Indicators
Late Quaternary RSL Records
Conclusions
References
Tectonics and Relative Sea-Level Change
Introduction
Tectonic Processes and Rates
Strandline Records of Deformation
Acknowledgment
References
Use of Quaternary Proxies in Forensic Science
Use of Geology in Forensic Science: Search to Locate Burials
Introduction
Objectives
Recent Developments in Forensic Geology
Historical Overview of Search
Search
Conceptual Geological Model
Search Planning and Phases
Search Assets
References
Soils and Sediment
History
Soil and Related Material as Evidence
Murder and the Pond
Examination Methods
The Future of the Science
References
The Use of Macroscopic Plant Remains in Forensic Science
Introduction
Legitimizing Botanical Evidence
General Usage of Forensic Botany
Botanical Applications
Education for Forensic Scientists
Acknowledgment
References
Insects
Introduction
Insect Life Cycles
The Forensic Value of Members of Specific Insect Families
Limitations in the Use of Insects in Forensic Entomology as Proxies
References
Relevant Websites
Analytical Techniques in Forensic Palynology
Introduction
Discussion
Light Microscopy Versus Scanning Electron Microscopy
DNA Analysis of Pollen Grains
Raman Spectroscopy of Pollen Grains
Stable Isotope Analysis of Pollen Grains
Summary
Acknowledgment
References
U-Series Dating
Introduction
Dating of Reef Corals
Corrections to U-Series Coral Ages
Dating of Speleothems
References
Varved Lake Sediments
Introduction
History
Formation of Varved Lake Sediments
Varve Chronology and Applications
Conclusion
References
Varved Marine Sediments
Introduction and History
Varve Formation and Preservation
Classification and Morphology
Analytical Techniques
Varve Applications
References
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Vertebrate Overview
Historical Background
Distribution of Quaternary Vertebrate Remains
Sampling, Excavation, and Analysis Methods
Paleoecology
Paleobiogeography
Biostratigraphy
Interactions with Hominins and Extinctions
References
Vertebrate Records
Early Pleistocene
Introduction
Early Pleistocene Case Histories
Acknowledgment
References
Early and Middle Pleistocene of Northern Eurasia
Introduction
Mammal Assemblages of Northern Eurasia
Conclusions
References
Mid-Pleistocene of Africa
The Middle Pleistocene
Conclusions
References
Mid-Pleistocene of Australia
Introduction
Caveats
Zoogeography
Comparison with the Early Pleistocene Record
Comparison with the Late Pleistocene Record
Ongoing Research
References
Mid-Pleistocene of Europe
Introduction
The Latest Early Pleistocene (Villafranchian-Galerian Transition)
The Early Middle Pleistocene
The Late Middle Pleistocene
References
Mid-Pleistocene of North America
Introduction
North American Land Mammal Ages
Blancan
Irvingtonian
Non-Mammalian Vertebrate Faunal Groups
Broader Significance of Irvingtonian Biotas
References
Mid-Pleistocene of Southern Asia
Introduction
Early-middle Pleistocene Faunas from Open Sites
Early-middle Pleistocene Faunas from Caves or Fissure Fillings
Unbalanced Endemic Island Faunas
References
Late Pleistocene of Africa
Introduction
Modern Physical and Environmental Setting
The Fossil Records
Summary
References
Late Pleistocene of North America
Introduction
Rancholabrean Land Mammal Age
Terrestrial Faunas
Localities
Late Pleistocene Extinction
Mexico
The Next Step
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Website
Late Pleistocene of South America
Biogeographic Origin
Biostratigraphic Framework
Key Sites
Fauna
LGM Effect
South American LP/EH Extinction
References
Late Pleistocene of Southeast Asia
Introduction
Biogeography of Southeast Asia
Late Pleistocene Mammals in Southeast Asia
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Late Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions
Introduction
Extinctions Before the End of the Last Glaciation
Regions Suffering Few Late Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions
Theories on the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinction
Can We Find the Smoking Gun?
References
Late Pleistocene Mummified Mammals
Introduction
Circumpolar Frozen Fauna
United States Cave Fauna
Patagonian Cave Fauna
European `Pickled´ Fauna
Preservation of Frozen Mummies
References
Vertebrate Studies
Ancient DNA
The Early History of Ancient DNA Research
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Sources of Ancient DNA
Recent Directions in Ancient DNA
References
Speciation and Evolutionary Trends in Quaternary Vertebrates
Introduction
Species and Subspecies Origins
Evolutionary Trends
Microevolution
Biostratigraphic Value of Quaternary Mammal Evolution
Discussion
Acknowledgment
References
Dwarfing and Gigantism in Quaternary Vertebrates
Introduction
Giants and Dwarfs: The Most Intriguing Case Histories
Acknowledgment
References
Interactions with Hominids
Introduction
Diet and Subsistence
Raw Material
Ideology and Religion
A Sign of Things to Come
Acknowledgment
References
Index