Cover
Vol 1 - Vol 1 - Encyclopedia of pharmacy practice and clinical pharmacy
Title page
Copyright page
Contents of all Volumes
List of Contributors to Volume 1
Editor Biographies
Editor-In-Chief
Section Editors
Foreword
Preface
Encyclopedia of Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy
Dedication
Pharmacy Practice and Its Research: Evolution and Definitions
The Development of Pharmacy Practice Research
Evolution of Pharmacy Practice Research and Its Literature
Definition and Evolution of Pharmacy Practice
Conclusion
List of Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
Research Designs and Methodologies Related to Pharmacy Practice
Learning Objectives
Introduction to Research Methodologies Used in Pharmacy Practice
Core Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Used in Pharmacy Practice Research
Research Question and Selection of Study Design
Classification of Research Methodologies Used in Pharmacy Practice
Quantitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice
Observational Study Designs
Case-Control Studies
Cohort Studies
Case-Crossover Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Study Designs
Other Quantitative Study Designs
Simulated Client Method
Discrete Choice Experiments
Qualitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice
Interpretative Framework and Philosophical Assumptions of Qualitative Research
Interpretative Frameworks
Philosophical Assumptions
Approaches to Inquiry (Methodology)
Data Collection and Analysis Methods in Qualitative Research
Quality Perspectives in Qualitative Research
Ethical Considerations
Mixed Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research
Summary and Take-Home Messages
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Quantitative Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research
Background
Pharmacy and Research Methods
Types of Quantitative Research Methods
Nonexperimental Research Methods
Observational Research Method
Limitations of Observational Research Method
Archived Data Research Method
Collecting Data from Administrative Datasets
Secondary Analysis of Primary Data
Survey Research Method
Method of Data Collection for Surveys
Bias in Survey
Sampling bias
Recall bias
Social desirability bias
Experimental Research Methods
Pre-experimental Research Method
Limitations
Quasi-experimental Research Method
Limitations
True Experimental Research Method
Limitations
Single-Subject Research Method
Limitations
Validation of a Research Method
Conclusion
References
Qualitative Methods in Pharmacy Practice Research
Introduction
Choosing an Appropriate Qualitative Method
Finding Meanings by Analyzing Concepts
Content Analysis
Framework Analysis
Delphi Technique
Grounded Theory
Finding Meanings by Analyzing Themes
Thematic Analysis
Discourse Analysis
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
Collecting Qualitative Data and Reporting Results
Sampling and Recruitment of Participants
Gathering and Preparing Qualitative Data
Collecting Data Which Is Observed
Collecting Data Which Is Written
Collecting Data Which Is Shared
Ethical Issues
Reporting and Writing up Results
Final Considerations and Steps to Go Further
Glossary
References
List of Relevant Websites
Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research in Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
What Is Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research?
Types of Meta-Synthesis
Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research in Pharmacy Practice
Examples of Meta-Synthesis in Pharmacy Practice
Step-by-Step Guide to Meta-Synthesize Qualitative Literature in Pharmacy Practice
Step 1 Frame a Clear Research Question/Objective
Step 2 Strategize the Search
Step 3 Define and Refine an Inclusion Criterion
Step 4 Synthesize New Knowledge
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Mixed Methods Research in Pharmacy Practice: Basics and Beyond
Introduction
What is Mixed Methods Research?
Planning of Mixed Methods Research
Mixed Methods Research Designs: How to Use Them?
The Exploratory Sequential Design
The Explanatory Sequential Design
The Convergent Parallel Design
The Embedded Design
Literature Review: Mixed Methods Studies in Pharmacy Practice
Approaches of Integration of Findings in Mixed Methods Research
Quality in Mixed Methods Research
What are the Challenges in Using Mixed Methods Research
Application of Mixed Methods Methodology in a Program of Inquiry
Conclusion
References
Publication Bias
Background
Role of Publication Bias in Evidence-Based Clinical Decision Making
History of Publication Bias
Types
Multiple Publication Bias
Time Lag Bias
Location Bias
Citation Bias
Language Bias
Outcome Reporting Bias
Confirmatory Bias
Funding Bias
Factors Contributing Toward Publication Bias
Design and Implementation of Study
Publication Bias due to Unpublished Studies
Publication Bias due to Rejection of Journals
Sponsorship
Methods of Detecting and Correcting for Publication Bias
Unpublished Data and Publication Bias
Graphical and Statistical Methods
Funnel Plot
Fail-Safe N Test
Orwin's Fail-Safe N
Duval and Tweedie's Trim and Fill
Comparison of Published and Unpublished Data
Analyzing Larger Studies Only
Technological Aids in the Detection of Publication Bias
Comprehensive Meta Analysis (Version 2.0)
Review Manager (Version 4.2)
Stata (Version 8.2)
MetaWin (Version 2.0)
Tackling Publication Bias
Trial Registries
Data Availability
Mandating Publication
Open Access Journals
Peer Review Process and Publication Bias
Editorial Policy
Conclusion
References
List of Relevant Websites
Further Reading
Discrete Choice Experiment
Introduction
Discrete Choice Experiment
Definition
Theoretical Foundation of Discrete Choice Experiments
Design and Administration of Discrete Choice Experiments
Analysis and Interpretation
Applications in Pharmacy Practice Research
Studies of Pharmaceutical Services
Studies of Pharmaceutical Products
Summary
Glossary
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Web Pages
Quality of Qualitative Research
Chapter Overview
Introduction
Process-Oriented Approach: Practices to Ensure Rigour and Trustworthiness
Triangulation
Self-Description/Reflexivity
Member Checking
Prolonged Engagement
Audit Trail
Peer Debriefing
Thick Description
Output-Oriented Approach: Quality of Reporting of Qualitative Research
Significance of Quality of Reporting to Stakeholders
Reporting Guidelines
Reporting Guidelines: Do They Improve Quality?
Common Reporting Guidelines for Qualitative Research
Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research
Development of the COREQ Checklist
Uses and Benefits of COREQ
Limitations of COREQ
Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research
Development of the Standards
Uses and Benefits of SRQR
Limitations of SRQR
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Clinical Pharmacists as Principal Investigators in Clinical Trials
Introduction
Ethics in Clinical Trials
Roles and Responsibilities of the PI in Clinical Trials
Clinical Pharmacists in Clinical Research
The ACCP's Position Statement for Clinical Pharmacists Working as PIs (ACCP, 2000a; )
Recommended Education and Training for Clinical Pharmacists to Work as PIs
Clinical Research Training Programs for Clinical Pharmacists
Other Clinical Research Training Programs
The Role of Clinical Pharmacist in Improving Adherence Issues in Clinical Trials
The Importance of Integrating Clinical Pharmacists in Clinical Trials
Enhancing Medication-Related Aspects of Clinical Trials by Integrating Clinical Pharmacists
Pharmaceutical Industry Considerations
Summary and Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Evidence-Based Pharmacy Practice Research in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Issues, Challenges and Synthesis
Pharmacy Practice in Low-Middle-Income Countries
Is Pharmacy Practice Research Lacking In LMICs?
Major Health Issues of LMICs
Role of Evidence in Health-Care Systems
Quality
Quantity
Diversity
Rational Use of Medicine
Pharmaceutical Care/Managed Care
Formulary and Procurement Systems
Preparation and Distribution of Medicines
Medication Error Reporting
Access to Essential Medicines
Quality of Medicine
Managing Medicine Supply Chains
The Need for Basic Household Data on Medicine Use
Low Literacy and Health Education
Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health and Micronutrient Deficiency
Review Contributions of LMICs in Top-Tier Pharmacy Journal(s)
The Way Forward
Promoting Quality Evidence Through Systematic Reviews
Use of Standard Protocols
Completeness of Search in Reviews
Source of Research Funding
Gaps in Academic Training in Research Methodologies
Take Home Message
Conclusion
References
Implementation Science
Introduction
Foundations of Implementation Science
Terminology
Theoretical Approaches: Frameworks, Models and Theories
Core Concepts of Implementation Science
Generic Implementation Framework (GIF)
Innovation: What is to be Implemented?
Contextual Domains: Where and for Whom is it to be Implemented?
Implementation Factors
Implementation Process: How and by Whom is it to be Implemented?
Implementation Strategies
Implementation Evaluation/Outcomes
Framework for the Implementation of Services in Pharmacy (FISpH)
Model for the Evaluation of Implementation Programs and Professional Pharmacy Services
Implementation Science Research Methods
Study Design
Experimental Design
Quasi-experimental and/or Observational Design
Alternative Randomized Design
Stakeholder Involvement
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Summary
Glossary
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Web Pages
Network Meta-Analysis in Pharmacy Practice Research
Introduction
Network Meta-Analysis
Concept
History
Fundamentals of Network Meta-Analysis
Assumptions of Network Meta-Analysis
Analytical Methods
Critical Appraisal of Network Meta-Analysis and Findings
Reporting and Interpreting Results
Use of NMA in Pharmacy Research
Pharmaceutical Products Evaluation
Evaluation of Pharmacy Services
Conclusion
Glossary
Web References
References
Ethnography in Pharmacy Policy and Practice
Introduction
What is Ethnography?
Introduction
Defining Ethnography
Origins of Ethnography
Different Types of Ethnography
Doing Ethnography
Introduction
Sampling
Immersion
Data Collection Tools
Observation
Interviews
Ethnographic Content Analysis
Mixed Methods and Ethnography
Data Analysis Process
Theory in Ethnography
Rigor
Ethnographic Writing
Ethnography in Health Services Research Pharmacy Practice and Policy Research
Overview
Literature Review
Lessons from Ethnographies of Pharmacy Practice
Pharmacist Culture
Patient-Pharmacy Interaction Culture
Global Pharmacy Culture
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Philosophical Perspectives and Theories Applied in Pharmacy Practice Research
Philosophical Perspectives
Paradigms/Belief Systems
History of Philosophical Perspectives and Theories in Pharmacy Practice Research
The Why and How of Theory Base in Pharmacy Practice Research
Main Theories and Models Applied in Pharmacy Practice Research
Grounded Theory
Behavioral Change Theories and Models
Patient Safety Theory and Models
Learning Theories
Patient-Pharmacist Interaction Theories
Theories of GP-Pharmacist Collaboration
Organizational Theories
Technology Theories
Political Science Theories
Ethics
The Future
References
Further Reading
Principles, Paradigms, and Application of Qualitative Research in Pharmacy Practice
Learning Objectives
Qualitative Research Designs in Pharmacy Practice and the Limit of the Evidence
Interpretative Frameworks and Philosophical Assumptions
Interpretative Frameworks
Philosophical Assumptions
Approaches to Inquiry (Methodology) and Case Applications
Narrative Research
Phenomenological Research
Grounded Theory Research
Ethnographic Research
Case Study Research
Methods in Qualitative Research
Data Collection Methods
Documents
Individual Interviews
Focus Groups
Data Analysis Methods
Thematic Analysis
Content Analysis
Discourse Analysis
Quality Perspectives in Qualitative Research
Trustworthiness Criteria for Ensuring Quality in Qualitative Research
Credibility
Dependability
Confirmability
Transferability
Reflexivity in Qualitative Research
Conclusion and Take-Home Messages
References
Further Reading
Medicines Management: The Core of Pharmacy Practice
1 Introduction
2 What Is Medicines Management?
2.1 Common Definitions
2.2 Associated Terms
2.3 The Scope of Medicines Management
3 Why Is Medicines Management Increasingly Becoming Important?
3.1 Factors Driving the Medicines Management Agenda
3.1.1 A Changing Demographic
3.1.2 Policy and Economic Drivers
3.1.2.1 Growing cost of care and medicines
3.1.2.2 Improving medicine adherence
3.1.2.3 The cost of adverse drug events (ADEs)
3.1.3 Pharmacy's Professionalization Project
4 Pharmacy's Involvement in Medicines Management
4.1 The Patient-Centered Care Agenda
4.2 Medication Review
4.2.1 Evidencing Medication Review Outcomes
4.2.2 Community Pharmacy Medication Review Services: An International Perspective
4.2.2.1 Home medicines review (HMR)
4.2.2.2 Medicines use reviews (MURs) and the new medicines service (NMS)
4.2.2.3 Medication therapy management (MRM)
4.2.2.4 Medicines use review and adherence support services (MURs)
4.2.2.5 Polymedication-checks
4.3 Community Pharmacist Involvement in Other Medicines Management Activities
4.3.1 Pharmacists in General Practice
4.3.2 Pharmacist Prescribing
4.4 Medicines Management in Hospitals: The Role of Clinical Pharmacy
4.4.1 The Role of the Drugs and Therapeutics Committee (DTC)
4.5 Medicines Management at the Primary-Secondary Interface
4.6 Medication Errors
4.7 Medicines Management in Industry
4.8 Facilitators and Barriers
4.8.1 Common Barriers to Medicines Management
4.8.2 Common Facilitators to Medicines Management
5 Emerging Medicines Management Opportunities
5.1 eHealth
5.2 Antimicrobial Resistance and Stewardship (AMS)
5.3 Deprescribing
5.4 Pharmacogenomics and Personalized Medicines
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Further Reading
Historical Evolution of Pharmacy Practice
1 History and Definition
1.1 A Change in Medicines Production
1.2 A Change in Education of Pharmacists
1.3 A Change in Information Availability
2 A Time for Change
3 Pharmaceutical Care
4 Modern Pharmacy Practice
5 Evolution of Community Pharmacy Practice
5.1 New Community Pharmacy Services
6 Evolution of Hospital Pharmacy
7 Evolution of Academic Pharmacy
8 Evolution of Other Areas of Pharmacy Practice
9 Evolution of Pharmacy Practice Around the Globe
9.1 USA and Canada
9.2 UK
9.3 Europe
9.4 Japan
9.5 Middle East
9.6 Asia
9.7 Under-Resourced Countries
10 A Look into the Future
References
Further Reading
Codes of Conduct/Ethics in Pharmacy Practice
1 Introduction
2 What Is a Code´´?
2.1 Professional Codes, Policies, Standards, and Guidelines
2.2 Professional Values and Ethical Principles Evident in Codes for Pharmacists
2.3 Professional Values as a Basis for Developing Transdisciplinary Codes
3 Why Develop a Code?
3.1 A Code as a Declaration of What Society May Expect of Members of the Profession
3.2 A Code as a Guide to Practitioners
3.3 A Code as a Guide to Educators
3.4 A Code to Serve the Public Interests and Support the Regulatory Process
3.5 A Code to Facilitate the Profession's Social Contract with the Public
4 How Might a Code be Developed?
4.1 Strategies for DraftingPharmacy´´ Codes: Insights from the Literature
4.1.1 Theoretical Considerations´´ for a Meaningful Code
4.1.2Reasons´´ for Having a Code of Pharmaceutical Ethics´´
4.1.3 Development of a Code of Conduct for aUniversity Faculty´´
4.1.4 Codes for a National Pharmaceutical System´´
4.2 Enabling the Development of Codes
4.3 Education for and Understanding of the Code's Aims and Applications
5 Why Might a CodeFail´´ to Achieve its Aims?
5.1 The Need to Assure Understanding (of the Code) Among Members of the Profession
5.2 The Need to Enable Mediation to Address Misunderstandings Among Stakeholders
5.3 The Need to Enable Enforcement of the Code: If Applicable to the Context
6 Websites
References
Further Reading
Community and Ambulatory Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
Changing Community Pharmacy Landscape
Ownership Models
Dispensing and Workflow
Drug Reform and Generic Deflation
Understand the Evolving Roles of All the Key Pharmacy Players
Pharmacy Labor Investments are Instrumental to Sustainability
Traditional Measures of Pharmacy Productivity are No Longer Applicable
Pharmacy Contribution for Professional Services is Higher than Dispensing Activities
Embrace Technology to Enhance Productivity
Patient Care Services
Medication Reviews
Experience To-Date
Disease State-Specific Consultation Programs
Smoking Cessation
Minor Ailment Prescribing and Assessment
Immunization
Influenza
Vaccination Beyond Influenza
Pharmacist-Directed Travel Clinics
Point-of-Care Testing
A1C Testing
Blood Pressure Monitoring and Management
Lipid Screening and Cardiovascular Risk Assessment
Chronic Kidney Disease Screening
Atrial Fibrillation Screening
Strep Testing
Influenza Screening
Helicobacter pylori Testing
Pharmacogenomics
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Hospital Pharmacy Practice: A Case Study from Canada
Mission
Hospital Pharmacy Setting
Governance
Basel Statements on the Future of Hospital Pharmacy
Patient Safety
Medication Safety
Influence of Hospital Pharmacists and Pharmacy Technicians on Medication Safety
Antimicrobial Stewardship
Drug Procurement and Distribution
People
Procurement
Drug Shortages
Dispensary and Storage Areas
Wardstock
Automated Processes and Dispensing Devices
Unusable Stock and Disposal of Drugs
Access to Pharmacy
Preparation
Compounding and Repackaging
Labeling
Safety Checks
Procedures
Quality
Clinical Pharmacy Services
Education of Other Health-Care Professionals about Pharmacotherapy
Education of Patients about their Medications
Education of Pharmacists
Entry-to-practice Education
Training in Hospital Pharmacy Practice
Provision of Expertise
Drug Information
Formulary Management
Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committee
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Websites
Expanded and Evolving Roles for Pharmacists
1 Scope of Practice and the Pharmacist's Professional Role
2 Enacting Scope Expansion in Pharmacy
3 Barriers to Expanded and Evolving Roles for Pharmacists and Potential Strategies to Overcome These Barriers
3.1 Time, Workflow, and Space
3.2 Education and Confidence
3.3 Support From Other Health Professionals and Patients
3.4 Remuneration/Payment for Services
3.5 Access to, and Sharing of, Medical Records
3.6 Concerns Related to Professional Liability
4 Practice Facilitation and Other Quality Improvement Strategies
5 Evidence Related to Expanded Scope Activities
6 Next Stages in the Evolving Roles for Pharmacists
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Professional Pharmacy Services
Learning Objectives
1 Introduction
2 Defining Professional Pharmacy Services
2.1 Summary
3 Related Terminology
3.1 Clinical Pharmacy
3.2 Pharmaceutical Care
3.3 Cognitive Services
3.4 Summary
4 Examples of Professional Pharmacy Services
4.1 Patient Education and Counseling (With or Without Medication Dispensing)
4.2 Medication Reconciliation
4.3 Medication Therapy Assessment
4.4 Medication Therapy Monitoring and Follow Up
4.5 Prescribing
4.5.1 Initiation of Medications
4.5.2 Management of Medications
4.5.3 Cessation
4.6 Information Provision
4.7 Detection, Prevention, or Control of Risk Factors
4.7.1 Health Promotion and Preventative Care
4.7.2 Immunization
4.7.3 Screening, Detecting, or Monitoring Disease
4.8 Summary
5 Implementation of Professional Pharmacy Services
5.1 Individual Determinants
5.2 Interpersonal Determinants
5.3 Organizational Determinants
5.4 Health Care System Determinants
5.5 Summary
6 Conclusions
References
Prescribing: Practices, Standards, Ethics, Behaviors, and Competencies: A Case Study in Alberta
Introduction
Pharmacy Prescribing Practices
Prescribing Autonomy: Independent or Dependent
Prescribing Activities
The Intersection of Autonomy and Activities
Evolution of Prescribing Standards
Prescribing Ethics
Prescribing Behaviors
Stakeholder Perceptions of Pharmacist Prescribing
Prescribing Competencies
References
Professionalism in Pharmacy Practice
1 Introduction
2 Occupation as Profession
3 Pharmacy as a Profession
4 Professionalism as a Construct
5 Patient-Centered Professionalism
6 The Professionalization of Pharmacy Students and Practitioners
7 Why Professionalism Matters
8 Summary
References
Regulating Pharmacy Professionals
Introduction and Scope
Why are Pharmacy Professionals Regulated?
What Authority Supports the Governance and Regulation of Pharmacy Professionals?
Regulatory Cultures Differ
How are Pharmacy Regulators Held Accountable?
Models of Regulation
Roles and Responsibilities of Regulating Bodies
The Role of Regulators in Developing Public Policy
Case Study-Pharmacy Practice in Alberta, Canada
Emerging Considerations in Regulation
Summary
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Journal Articles
Books
Website Citations
Public Health and Health Promotion in Pharmacy Practice
1 What is Health?
2 Defining Public Health
2.1 Five Waves of Public Health
3 The UN Sustainable Development Goals
3.1 SDG 3-Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for All at All Ages
3.2 Eradicating Malaria as an Example
3.3 TB as a Global Public Health Issue
3.4 Ecological Public Health
3.5 Planetary Health
4 What is Health Promotion?
4.1 Heath Education
5 Pharmacy and Health Promotion
5.1 Health Promotion in the National Health Service Contract in England
5.1.1 Prescription-Linked Interventions
5.1.2 Campaign-Based Services
5.1.3 The Components of Pharmacists´ Health Promotion Activities
5.2 Types of Pharmacy Intervention Adapted From Nice
6 The Evidence Base for Pharmacists´ Role in Improving the Health of the Public
6.1 Smoking Cessation
6.2 Emergency Hormonal Contraception Supply
6.3 Chlamydia Screening and Treatment Services
6.4 Case Finding Type II Diabetes Screening
6.5 Harm Reduction Services
6.6 Weight Management
6.7 Brief Alcohol Interventions
6.8 Case Finding in Pharmacy
6.9 Pharmacy and Health Inequalities
7 Professional Standards for Pharmacy and Public Health
7.1 Advice and Information
7.2 Communication
7.3 Service Delivery
8 Ethical Health Promotion
8.1 Assessment
8.2 Planning
8.3 Implementation
8.4 Evaluation and Research
8.5 Ethical Values Underpinning the IUHPE Core Competencies and Professional Standards for Health Promotion
9 Core Competencies for Health Promotion
10 Healthy Living Pharmacy
10.1 Level 1
11 An Example of a Health Promoting Pharmacy
Further Reading
Collaborative and Interprofessional Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
Collaboration
Evidence for collaboration
Evidence for CPP/IPP
Canada
United Kingdom model
United States of America
Instruments to measure collaboration
Conclusion
References
Interpersonal Communication in Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
Factors Influencing Interpersonal Communication
Pharmacist-Patient Relationship and Communication
Other Pharmacist Relationships and Communication
Caregivers
Pharmacist-Other Health-Care Professionals Relationship
Pharmacist-Public Society Relationship at Large
Theoretical Foundation for Interpersonal Communication
Components of Effective Communication
Communication Techniques
Factors Associated With Ineffective Communication
Patient-Level Barriers to Effective Patient-Pharmacist Communication
Pharmacist-Level Barriers to Effective Patient-Pharmacist Communication
Patient Scenarios With Suggested Communication Strategies
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Evidence-Based Medicine: An Overview for Pharmacists
What is Drug Information (DI)?
Definition
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Literature
Responding to a DI Request
What is Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM)?
Origins and Definition
How do Pharmacists Practice EBM?
Levels of Evidence and Study Designs
Levels of Evidence
EBM Step 1: Constructing an Answerable Question
Background/Foreground Questions and PICO
EBM Step 2: Choosing Your Sources and Performing the Literature Search
Identifying Search Terms and Using AND/OR/NOT
PubMed (MEDLINE)
Tips to Consider
Clinical Queries
Other Databases
Clinical Practice Guidelines
Gray Literature
EBM Step 3: Critical Appraisal of the Results
Outline placeholder
Systematic Reviews/Meta-Analyses
Randomized Controlled Trials
Describing Study Results
Measures of Central Tendency and Precision
Describing Results in Relation to a Comparison Group
Checklists
EBM Steps 4 and 5: Applying the Evidence to Your Patient and Evaluating Your Results
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
Patient Counseling and Education: Models and Methods in Pharmacy Practice
Objectives
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Models of Patient Education
2.1 Health Belief Model
2.2 Transtheoretical Model of Behavioral Change
2.3 Locus of Control
2.4 Adult Learning Theory-Andragogy
2.5 Self-Efficacy Model
3 International Perspectives
4 Models and Methods of Patient Education in Special Populations
4.1 Patient Education for Pregnancy and Lactation
4.2 Pediatrics
4.3 Mental Health
5 Conclusions
References
Technology and Social Media Applications in Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
Overview of Social Media
Uptake of Social Media
Common Features of Social Networking Sites
Creating Social Media Content
Social Media in Health Care
Social Media in Pharmacy
e-Professionalism and Social Media
Pharmacy Communities Online
Social Media in Pharmacy Education
Teaching Pharmacy Students to Use Social Media
The Safety of Social Media
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Pediatric Pharmacy Practice
Responsibilities of All Pharmacists Working Within a System That Cares for Pediatric Patients
Roles of the Pharmacist Caring for Pediatric Patients
Age Terminology and Definitions
Fundamentals of Pediatric Pharmaceutical Calculations
Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Pharmacogenomics
Pediatric Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Pharmacogenomics
Pediatric Dosage Forms
Drug Properties
Enteral Tube Administration
Short Bowel Syndrome
Ketogenic Diet
Hazardous Medications
Patient Education
Drug Information
Medication Safety
Medication Reconciliation
Expanded Scope of Practice
References
Use of Complementary/Alternative Medicines in Pharmacy Practice
1 What is Complementary and Alternative Medicine?
1.1 Defining CAM
2 The Regulation of CAM Practices and Products
2.1 Regulation of CAM Practitioners
2.2 Regulation of CAM Products
3 Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use
3.1 Prevalence of CAM Use
3.2 Reasons for CAM Use
4 Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Pharmacy Practice
4.1 Sale and Marketing of NHPs in Pharmacies
4.2 Role of the Pharmacist in CAM
4.3 Integrative Medicine Approaches
5 Safety of Complementary and Alternative Medicine
5.1 Safety of CAM Procedures
5.2 Safety of Natural Health Products
6 Monitoring and Reporting Adverse Events Involving Complementary and Alternative Medicine
6.1 Adverse Event Reporting for CAM Practices and Procedures
6.2 Adverse Event Reporting for CAM Products
7 Finding and Interpreting Evidence Surrounding Complementary and Alternative Medicine
7.1 Evidence-Based Medicine and CAM
7.2 Resources for Locating Evidence on CAM Practices and Procedures
7.3 Resources for Locating Evidence on CAM Products
8 Communicating with Patients about Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use
9 Conclusion
References
Prevention and Management of Substance Misuse and Addiction in Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
Opioids
Sedative-Hypnotics
Alcohol
Smoking Cessation
Harm Reduction
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Self-Care/Over-the-Counter Drugs/Minor Ailments in Pharmacy Practice
1 Introduction
2 Self-Care
2.1 The History and Evolving Definition
2.2 The Seven Pillars of Self-Care
3 Minor Ailments
4 Understanding Today's Self-Care Landscape
4.1 Self-Medication
4.2 Facilitated Self-Medication
4.3 Self-Care Market
4.3.1 Impetus for Continued Growth
4.4 The Benefits of Self-Care and Self-Medication
5 The Pharmacist's Role in Self-Care and Minor Ailments
5.1 Managing Minor Ailments in the Community
5.2 Facilitating Safe and Appropriate Self-Care and Self-Medication
6 Pharmacists´ Patient Care Process in Self-Care
6.1 PPCP: The Core
6.2 PPCP: The Five Steps
6.2.1 Collect
6.2.2 Assess
6.2.2.1 Medication assessment
6.2.2.2 Patient history and risk assessment
6.2.2.3 Preventive care assessment
6.2.2.4 Appropriateness for self-treatment assessment
6.2.3 Plan
6.2.3.1 Medication-related problems
6.2.3.2 Goals of therapy
6.2.3.3 Patient engagement
6.2.3.4 Care continuity
6.2.4 Implement
6.2.5 Follow-Up: Monitor and Evaluate
6.3 Tools and Mnemonics for PPCP Efficiency
7 Developing Cultural Competency for Self-Care
7.1 Rationale for Improving Cultural Competency in Healthcare
7.2 Important Considerations for Working Across Cultures
7.2.1 Beliefs of Different Population Groups
7.2.2 Communication
7.3 Providing Culturally Competent Care
7.3.1 Recognizing Personal Beliefs and Biases
7.3.2 Strategies for Gathering and Assessing Patient Information
7.3.3 Developing and Articulating a Self-Care Plan
8 Regulatory and Legal Considerations
8.1 Regulatory Considerations for Nonprescription Drugs
8.2 Approval of Nonprescription Drugs
8.2.1 A Note on Prescription-to-Nonprescription Switches
8.3 Ensuring Nonprescription Drug Safety
8.3.1 Labeling, Packaging, and Advertising
8.3.2 Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting
8.3.3 Safety Concerns Related to Nonprescription Drugs
8.3.3.1 Substandard and falsified products
8.3.3.2 Abuse of nonprescription medications
8.4 Legal Considerations for Nonprescription Drugs
9 Pharmacist-Led Minor Ailment Services (PMAS)
10 The Future
Glossary
List of Relevant Web Pages
References
Extemporaneous Compounding in Pharmacy Practice
Introduction
Compounding in Community Pharmacy
Nonsterile Compounding
Overcoming Errors in Compounding Pharmacy
Nonsterile Basic Pharmacy
Physical Layout
General
Layout
Lighting
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning System
Water Supply
Work Surfaces
Furniture, Walls, and Flooring
Basic Equipment
Introduction to Common Extemporaneous Formulation Types
Liquids
Suspensions
Emulsions
Ointments
Preparation by Fusion
Preparation by Mechanical Incorporation
Levigation
Geometric Dilution
Ointment Jar/Container Selection
Ointment Jar Packing
Creams: O/W, W/O
Poloxamer Gel Cream
Carbomer and Cellulose-Based Gels
Preparations Using Molds (Solids)
Suppositories
Suppository Compounding Equipment
Rectal Rockets
Lollipops
Troches
Lip Balms
Capsules
Hand Filling
Capsule Machine Filling
Oral Disintegrating Tablets (Molds and Baked Versions)
Flavorants
Formulation Stability
Beyond Use Dates: A Guideline
Preservatives
Product Example Formulations and Calculations
Sample formula for Baclofen 5 mg/mL oral suspension (60mL)
Hydrocarbon Ointment Example: White Ointment USP XXII: (Hydrocarbon Ointment)
Hydrophilic Ointment Example: Polyethylene Glycol Ointment
O/W cream example: hydrophilic ointment USP
W/O Cream Example: Adapted from Cold Cream USP XVIII
Poloxamer 20%/LIPS Gel Cream
Poloxamer 20% (PLO 20%)
Lecithin/Isopropyl Palmitate (LIPS)
2% Methylcellulose Gel (Hot Method)
1% Carbomer Gel (Cold Method)
Mold Preparation Calculations
Mold Calibration
Density Factor/Displacement Factor Method
Calibrated Batch Volume Method
Double-Casting Method
Disregarding the Volume Contribution of a Drug or Excipient
Suppository Vehicle Example-Polyethylene Glycol
Rectal Rocket Vehicle Example (Oleaginous)
Lollipop Vehicle Example: Sorbitol/PEG 3350
Troche Vehicle Example-Glycerin/Gelatin/Acacia
Lip Balm Vehicle Example-Petrolatum/Beeswax
Capsule Filling Calculations
Capsuling a Nonstandard Dose: Interesting Example of Dose Taper
Conclusions
References
Global Health and Pharmacy Practice
1 Background and Introduction
2 Industrial Development
2.1 Third World Environment: Developing Countries
2.2 First World Environment
3 Age
4 Gender
4.1 Alcohol Use
4.2 Cancer
4.3 Depression
4.4 Cardiovascular Risk
4.5 Obesity
4.6 Alzheimer's Disease
5 Occupation
6 Climate
7 Lifestyle
8 Discussion
References
Pharmacy Practice in the UK
Introduction
What is Pharmacy Practice?
The Face of Pharmacy in the UK
A Brief History of Pharmacy
How Pharmacy Became a Profession in the UK?
Healthcare Landscape
Origins and Values of the National Health Service
NHS Reform and Structure
NHS Performance Ranking
NHS England
NHS Improvement
Clinical Commissioning Groups
NHS Sectors
Primary Care
Secondary Care
Tertiary Care
NHS Budget for Medicines
Pharmacy Regulation in the UK
General Pharmaceutical Council
Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency
Pharmacy Leadership
Royal Pharmaceutical Society
General Pharmacy Organizations in the UK
Community Pharmacy
Use of Technology in Community Pharmacy
Summary Care Record
Community Pharmacy Services
Medicines' Use Review
New Medicine Service
The Role of Pharmacy in Health Promotion
Healthy living pharmacy
Primary Care Pharmacy-Pharmacist and General Practitioner Partnerships
Out of Hours Services
Patient Group Directions
NonMedical Prescribing
Supplementary Prescribing
Independent Prescribing
Hospital Pharmacy
Hospital Pharmacy Standards
Use of Technology in Hospital Pharmacy
Healthcare Organizations and Pharmacy Groups
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
Health Education England
Public Health England
Pharmaceutical Services Negotiating Committee
Future of Pharmacy
List or Relevant Websites
References
Pharmacy Practice in Western Europe
The Backdrop
Forces of Change
Community Pharmacy
Hospital Pharmacy
Pharmacovigilance
Pharmacy Education: The Motor for Pharmacy Practice
Pharmacy Practice Research: Pioneering the Transformations
Managing the Forces of Change
References
Relevant Websites
Pharmacy Practice in Australia and New Zealand
1 History of Pharmacy Practice in Australia and New Zealand
2 Health Care System and Funding
3 Practice Standards and Guidelines
4 Pharmacy Education
5 Community Pharmacy
6 Hospital Pharmacy
7 The Way Forward: Expanded and Extended Role for Pharmacists
7.1 Integrating Pharmacy into the Broader Health Care Environment
7.2 Pharmacists in General Practice (the Practice Pharmacist)
7.3 Pharmacist Prescribing
7.4 Pharmacist Vaccinating
8 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Pharmacy Practice in China
China
Pharmacy Education
Pharmacy Education in China
Reforming the Pharmacy Education System in China
Pharmacovigilance
The Concept of Pharmacovigilance (PV)
The Organizational System for Pharmacovigilance in China
The Number of Reports Continues to Climb
Risk Management Systems Continue to Improve
Signal mining and evaluation
Handling emergency events
Risk warning
Challenges and Opportunities for Pharmacovigilance in China
Reliability of the monitoring system needs to be strengthened
Case report quality to be improved
Risk Warning Capability Needs to be Strengthened
The Future for Chinese Pharmacovigilance
Revise Laws and Regulations, and Strengthen the Duties of All Parties
Establish Inspection Mechanisms and Implement Corporate Responsibility
Promote Development of the Chinese Hospital Pharmacovigilance System (CHPS)
Strengthen Safety Education, Promote Information Feedback
Pharmacoeconomics in China
Guidelines for Pharmacoeconomic Evaluations in China
Potential Applications of Pharmacoeconomics in China
The Development of Social and Administrative Pharmacy in China
Commercial Pharmacy
Pharmaceutical Administration
Societal/Social Pharmacy
Social and Administrative Pharmacy in China
The Development and Definition of the Discipline
Faculty
Curriculum
PhD Graduate Student Education
Professional Society
Public Health Pharmacy in China
Legislation and National Policies
Legal Requirement for Community Pharmacy
Standards to Ensure the Quality of Pharmacy Services
Emerging Roles of Pharmacists in Healthy China´´
Education, Professional Qualification, Examination, and Training in Public Health
Future of Pharmacy
Hospital Pharmacy
Technology
Administrative Systems
Community Pharmacy
Community Pharmacy in the Future
Staffing and Management
Technology
Summary
References
Pharmacy Practice in India
Introduction
Health Status of India
Incredible India
Key Indicators of Health
Disease Burden and Epidemiological Transition
The Health Care System in India
Public Health Care System
Private Health Care System
Inequality in Access to Health Care Systems
Medication Use Problems
The Pharmacy Profession in India
Industry
Education
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Pharmacy Practice Education
Evolution of Pharmacy Practice Education
Practice
Community Pharmacy Practice
Pharmacists partnering with National TB Program
Mission of combating HIV/AIDS in India
Other initiatives by educational institutions in community pharmacy
Hospital and Clinical Pharmacy Practice
Hospital pharmacy practice
Clinical pharmacy practice
Pharmacy practice and industry
Pharmacy practice research
Future Directions
Summary
References
Further Readings
Pharmacy Practice in the Gulf States
Introduction
A Geographic and Cultural Orientation to the Gulf States
Pharmacy Practice in the Gulf States
Bahrain
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
United Arab Emirates
Conclusion
Glossary
References
List of Relevant Websites
Pharmacy: A Business, A Profession, Both, or Neither?
1 A Brief History of Pharmacy
2 Definitions of Professions
2.1 Sociological Definitions
3 Threats to thePharmacy Profession´´
3.1 Internal Threats
3.1.1 Recruitment
3.1.2 Training
3.1.3 Fragmentation
3.1.4 Perspective on the Product of Pharmacy
3.2 Intermediate Threats
3.3 External Threats
3.3.1 Physicians
3.3.2 Patients
3.3.3 Policy and Policy Makers
4 What Does This All Mean?
4.1 Rethinking the Mix: Can You Have Your Cake and Eat It Too?
4.2 Next Steps
5 Conclusion
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Pharmacy Practice in the Philippines
Health Scenario in the Philippines
Philippine Healthcare System: At a Glance
Health Financial Schemes and Expenditures
Healthcare Delivery System
Human Resources
Pharmacy Education
Regulations, Policies, and Standards
Core Pharmacy Practices
Hospital and Clinical Pharmacy
Hospital Pharmacy Services
Clinical Pharmacy Services
Community Pharmacy
Community Pharmacy Services
Conclusion
List of Abbreviations
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Pharmacy Practice in Primary and Secondary Care Settings Within the UK: An In-Depth Analysis
General Overview of Pharmacy Practice Within the UK Healthcare System
History of Pharmacy and Clinical Practice Across the UK Heathcare System
Primary Care Description Focusing on General Practice and Community Pharmacy
Secondary Care Description Focusing on Hospital Practice
Primary Care
Current Primary Care Platforms and Service Offerings
Community Pharmacy
Pharmacists and General Practice
Scotland, England, Wales, Northern Ireland Variance
Challenges Facing Primary Care Pharmacy Within the UK
Networks, Classification, and Interaction of Pharmacists
Case Studies
Secondary Care pharmacy services in the United Kingdom
Current Secondary Care Platforms and Service Offerings
Scotland, England, Wales, Northern Ireland Variance
Origins of Clinical Practice Within Secondary Care
Current Pharmacists Roles Within Clinical Practice and Professional Development
Case Studies
Integration Model and Healthcare Redesign-What Does This Mean for Pharmacists?
Current and Future Landscape of Healthcare Delivery Within the United Kingdom
Current Government Policy and Strategy on Pharmacy Services Within the United Kingdom
Current and Future Patient Demographics Within the UK National Health Service
Pharmacist Utilization Analysis and Discussion Within the Health Systems Across the United Kingdom
Examples and Realization of Integrated Primary and Secondary Care Services
Emerging and Innovative Roles Currently and Within the Next 10-20 Years
Description of a Potential Healthcare Landscape Within the Next 10 Years
Potential Examples of Pharmacist Roles
Obstacles and Hurdles and How is This Reached and What is Needed to Make This a Reality
Role of Regulation, Professional, Academia, and Unionized Bodies
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Pharmacy Practice in Portugal
Introduction
What is Pharmacy Practice?
The Face of Pharmacy in Portugal
Overview of the Portuguese Health-Care System
Origins and Values of the Portuguese National Health Service
The Portuguese Health-Care System
PNHS Sectors
PNHS Budget for Medicines
Pharmacy Regulation in Portugal
Pharmacy Education
Portuguese Pharmaceutical Society (PPS)
Medicines and Health-Care Products Regulatory Agency (INFARMED)
Sectorial Associations
Associations Representing Community Pharmacy Owners
Associations Representing Hospital Pharmacists
Community Pharmacy
The Development of Pharmacy Services
The Role of Pharmacy in Health Promotion
Needle Exchange Program
Opioid Substitution
Collection of Unused Medicines
Early Detection of Various Chronic Conditions
Colorectal Cancer Screening
HIV and Hepatitis Screening
The Role of the Pharmacist in Medicines Management
Current Scope of Practice in Community Pharmacy
Use of Technology in Community Pharmacy
Transformation of Community Pharmacies Into Care Centers
Hospital Pharmacy
Hospital Pharmacy Standards
The Role of the Hospital Pharmacist
Use of Technology in Hospital Pharmacy
Future of Pharmacy
Rethinking the Segregation Between Public and Private
Pharmacists' Integration into the PNHS
References
Vol 2 - Encyclopedia of pharmacy practice and clinical pharmacy
Title page
Copyright page
Contents of all Volumes
List of Contributors to Volume 2
Editor Biographies
Editor-In-Chief
Section Editors
Foreword
Preface
Encyclopedia of Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy
Dedication
What is Social Pharmacy?
Introduction
Defining Social Pharmacy
Social Pharmacy
Horizon Scanning
Conclusions
References
Access to Biosimilars
Historical Background
Biosimilar Clinical Features
Approval Process and Impact
Development and Approval of Biosimilars in the EU
Development and Approval of Biosimilars in the United States
Impact of Biosimilars in the Global Market
Global Market Scope and Accessibility of Biosimilars
Global Biosimilars Market: Regional Outlook
Global Biosimilar Market Drivers to Accessing Biosimilar Medicines
Economic Implications of Biosimilars
Access to Biosimilars in the EU vs US
Barriers to Access to Biosimilars
High Expenditure for Development of Biosimilars
Regulatory Pathways, Legislation of Biosimilars, and Entry to Market
Requirement for Distinguishing Nomenclature for Generic and Originator Brands
Biobetters and Next-Generation Biologics
Prescriber and Patient Concern's
Patent Litigation Barriers to Patient Access
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Articles in journals
Reviews
Books
Website citations
Further Reading
High-Cost Medicines: Access, Affordability, and Prices
Introduction to the Concept of High-Cost Medicines
Access to High-Cost Medicines in the European Region
Access to High-Cost Disease-Modifying Therapies
Access to High-Cost Anticancer Medicines
Access to High-Cost Orphan Medicines
Access to High-Cost Medicines in the Asia-Pacific Region
Access to High-Cost Disease-Modifying Therapies in New Zealand and Malaysia
Access to High-Cost Anticancer Medicines in Australia
Access to High-Cost Medicines in Thailand
Access to High-Cost Medicines in the American Region
Access to High-Cost Disease-Modifying Therapies in Brazil
Access to High-Cost Anticancer Medicines in Canada and the United States
Access to High-Cost Orphan Medicines in the United States
Affordability of High-Cost Medicines
Affordability of Cancer Drugs
Affordability of Disease-Modifying Therapies
Strategies to Improve Access to High-Cost Medicines
Conclusion
List of Abbreviations
References
Medication Adherence
What Is Medication Adherence?
How Common Is Medication Non-Adherence?
Why Is Medication Adherence Important?
What Is the Financial Impact of Medication Non-Adherence?
Why Are Patients Non-Adherent With Their Medications?
What Are the Theoretical Models That Explain Medication Adherence?
How Is Medication Adherence Measured?
How Can Medication Adherence Be Improved?
Who Are the Stakeholders in Improving Adherence?
What Are Some Practical Strategies to Improve Medication Adherence at the Patient Level?
Conclusion
References
Aging Populations and Medicine Use: A Sociological Approach
Background
The Health of Older Adults
Healthy and Active
At Risk but Healthy
Coping with Disease
Very Ill
Physical Functioning
Psychological Well-being
Social Well-being
Medicine Use
Polypharmacy
Nonadherence
Adverse Drug Reactions
A Sociological Approach toward Medicine Use
Sociology of Aging
Functionalism
Conflict Theory
Medicalization of Aging
Symbolic Interactionism
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Who Are We?-The Evolving Professional Role and Identity of Pharmacists in the 21st Century
Introduction
What Is a Profession?
The Professionalization of Pharmacy
The History of Pharmacy
Is Pharmacy Really a Profession?
Other Work in Professionalization of Pharmacy
Is a New Conceptual Framework the Future?
What Is Professional Identity?
Identity Theory
Professional Identity Formation
Professional Identity-The Role of Higher Education
Professional Identity-Pharmacy Education
Professional Identity-The Role of the Curriculum
Other Curricular Activities-Teaching Methods
Other Curricular Work-Assessment Practices
Professional Socialization-Pharmacy Education
Professional Identity and Experiential Learning
Professional Identity-Pharmacy Practice
The Future: Where are we Heading?
Conclusions
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Websites
Counterfeit Medicines: A Quick Review on Crime Against Humanity
Introduction
Definition
Extent of the Problem
Who and What Are Affected?
What Are the Roots of the Problem?
Perspectives on Falsified Medicines Use
Policy Perspective
Regulatory Perspective
Social Perspective
Economic Perspective
Laboratory Analysis and Technology
Other Anti-Counterfeiting Technologies
Counterfeit Medicines in Pharmaceutical Supply Chain: Organization's Involvement and Country Case Studies
Final Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
The Impact of Culture and Religion on Medicine Use
Introduction
Ethnicity and Medicine Use
Religion and Medicine Use
Religion, Medicine Use, and Health Professionals
Understanding Culture and the Health System
Conclusion
Key Lessons
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Disease Mongering: Corporate Greed and the Creation of Disease
1 Introduction
2 Approaches to Disease Mongering
2.1 Disease Mongering to Doctors
2.1.1 Use of Key Opinion Leaders
2.1.2 Manipulating Clinical Research
2.1.3 Controlling Clinical Practice Guidelines and Continuing Medical Education
2.2 Disease Mongering to Consumers
2.2.1 Funding Patient Groups
2.2.2 Direct to Consumer Advertising
2.2.3 Use of Mass Media
3 Examples of Disease Mongering Campaigns
3.1 Erectile Dysfunction
3.2 Social Anxiety
3.3 Overactive Bladder
3.4 Osteoporosis and Osteopenia
4 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Factors Influencing Pharmaceutical Policy Implementation
Introduction
Content, Process, Context, and Actors
A Stagist Viewpoint
The Window of Opportunity
Policy Coherence
Interconnected Systems
Transparency
Opportunities for Engagement
A Focus on Data and Accountability
Conclusion
References
Funding Mechanisms for Community Pharmacy Service Provision
Introduction
International whole of health´´ Systems
Free Market
Sovereignty Model
Beveridge Model
Bismarck Model
Government Monopoly
Funding the Value Proposition: Community Pharmacy in Context
Seven Directions of Future Focus that Influence Funding for Community Pharmacy
Funding of Medicines, Distribution and Enhanced Services: Country Monographs
Beveridge Funding Model
United Kingdom (UK)
Policy Reform Relating to Funded Service Provision
Current Service Funding Changes in the United Kingdom
Canada
Medicines Pricing and Core Dispensing Services in Canada
Funding Extended Clinical Services in Canadian Community Pharmacy
New Zealand
Barriers and Issues to Moving Forward with MedNZ
The Community Pharmacy Services Agreement (July 2012)
Core pharmacy services
Long-term condition (LTC) pharmacy services
Specific pharmacy services
Financial remuneration
European Member States
Spain
Medicines Availability
Denmark
Sweden
Bismarck Funding Models
Netherlands
France
Germany
Belgium
Sovereignty Funding Models
USA
Australia
Pharmacy Funding Policy Reform
Administrative handling and infrastructure (AHI)
Other Systems
South Africa
Summary
Abbreviations
References
Generic Drug Policies
Definitions of Generic Drugs
Naming of Generic Drugs
The Regulatory Process From Invention to Generic Competition
The Need for Generic Drug Policies
Supply Side Policies
Generic Drug Approval and Market Access
Pricing and Reimbursement
Tendering
Demand Side Policies
Generic Prescribing
Generic Substitution
Targeted Information and Academic Detailing
Prescribing Budgets and Indicators
Public Information Campaigns
Evaluation of Generic Drug Policies
Global Considerations
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Websites
The Social Determinants of Health Inequalities: Implications for Research and Practice in Social Pharmacy
Introduction
The Historical Background
Core Debates and Arguments Within the Social Determinants of Health
Inequality, Health and Social Problems
Neo-Material Explanations
Psychosocial Explanations
The Biology of Stress- How Inequality Gets Inside the Body
Conclusion and Relevance to Pharmacy Practice
References
Further Reading
Managing Cultural Diversity in Pharmacy Practice in the United States
Nomenclature
Introduction
What is Culture?
Culturally Competent Care in Pharmacy Practice
The Need for Cultural Competence in Pharmacy Practice
Cultural Competence
Culturalkinetics
Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services Standards
Culture and Time
Implications for Pharmacists and Pharmacy Practice
Wrap-Up
Acknowledgments
References
References (for Appendix II)
Relevant Webpages
Appendix I American Pharmacist Association Cultural Competence Policies
APhA Policy: Cultural Competence (2005)
Cultural Health Beliefs and Medication Use (2006)
Appendix II ASHP Cultural Competence Policies
1613 Cultural Competency
Rationale
Marketing of Pharmacy Services
Introduction
Marketing Research
The Marketing Mix
Product
Price
Place
Promotion
Products as a Service
Summary
References
Medication Narratives
What are Narratives?
Narratives of Illness and Health
Medication Narratives as Empirical Exemplars
Why Study Medication Narratives in Pharmacy Practice?
Improving Patient Care
Enhancing Pharmacy Teaching and Training
Engaging the Use of Narrative in the Healing Process
Engaging Narrative Approaches in Pharmacy Practice Research
How Can We Study Medication Narratives?
Future of Medication Narratives
Multimedia Annex
References
National Medicine Policies Impacting on Pharmacy Practice
Defining National Medicine Policy
Policy Makers' View of Pharmacy and Pharmacists
NMPs and the Sale of Medicines in Community Pharmacies
Sale of Prescription Medicines
Over-the-Counter Medicines and Other Goods Sold in Pharmacies
Patient Copayment and Insurance for Medicine Costs
Clinical Services (Cognitive Services) Provided by Pharmacists or Their Staff
Division of Labor Between Pharmacists and Other Health Care Professionals in Relation to Medicines
Concluding Remarks
Glossary
References
Relevant Websites
Pharmaceutical Company Sponsored Medication Assistance Programs
What is Driving the Increase in Health Expenditures All Over the Globe?
What is Pharmaceutical Company Sponsored Medication Assistance Program?
Government Prescription Assistance Programs in Countries Other than United States
Philippines Government Medical Assistance Program
Role of Patient Assistance Program in United States Healthcare System
Enrolling in Pharmaceutical Company Sponsored Medication Assistance Programs in the United States
Patient Assistance Program Enrollment Process in United States
Application Process
Empirical Evidence of Impact of Patient Assistance Programs
Provider-Patient Communication and Patient Assistance Programs Enrollment in United States
Use of Pharmaceutical Company Sponsored Medication Assistance Program in Other Health Care Systems
Canada
Asia-Pacific
Malaysia
Thailand
Vietnam
International Patient Assistance Programs
Future Trends and Challenges
References
Further Reading
Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies
Context
Relevance of Pricing Policies
Concepts and Definitions
Prices
Pharmaceutical Policies
Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies at Launch
Free Pricing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
External Price Referencing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Internal Price Referencing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Differential Pricing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Cost-Plus Pricing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Value-Based Pricing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Competitive Pricing (Tendering)
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Conditional Pricing
Use
Benefits
Limitations
Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies in the Supply Chain
Distribution Remuneration
Taxes
Conclusions
List of Abbreviations
Glossary
References
Development of the Theoretical Concept of Pharmaceuticalization
Introduction
The Pharmaceutical Person
The Pharmaceuticalization of Daily Life
The Pharmaceuticalization of Society
Living Pharmaceutical Lives
Pharmaceuticalization as a Theorising Concept
Depharmaceuticalization
Pharmaceuticalized Futures
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Technology and Pharmacy: Theory, Practice, and the Future Vision
Introduction
Pharmacy Practice and Technology
Exploration of the Foundational Statements, Technology, and Pharmacy Practice
What is Technology?
Technology in the History of Pharmacy
Renaissance of Community Pharmacies Based Upon Emerging Health Technologies
GPTs and TEP
The Concept ofTechnology-Enabled Pharmacy´´
Conceptual Framework: Relationship Between Technology and Pharmacy Practice
Pharmacy Action Research Cycle
Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Public and Patient Engagement
Introduction
The Origin of Public Involvement
Legal Requirements for Public Involvement
Definitions for Public Involvement
Involvement
Engagement
Participation
When It Isn´t Clear
Support for Public Involvement
People in Research
What Is Required for Public Involvement to Work?
Standards for Public Involvement
Standards for Public Involvement in Pharmacy Practice
Methods for Public Involvement
Coproduction
Guidance on Coproducing a Research Project
Organizational Perspectives on Public Involvement
NHS England
Healthwatch England
Clinical Commissioning
Public Involvement in Research-A Broader Perspective
Patients Included
Public Involvement in Higher Education
Public Involvement in Pharmacy Teaching
National Coordinating Centre for Public Engagement (NCCPE)
Resources for Public Involvement
Conclusion
Relevant Web Pages
INVOLVE
People in Research
GRIPP2 Reporting Checklists for PPI
University of Central Lancashire
The Pharmaceutical Journal
Healthwatch
The Royal Pharmaceutical Society in Great Britain
Patients Included
NIHR PPI Annual Reports
Acknowledgments
References
Sociology for Pharmacists
Historical Development
Sociological Contributions to PPR
Beliefs About Health and Illness
Researching Risks
Pharmaceutical Policy
Theories of the Professions
Evaluation Research
Pharmaceuticalization
A Bit of Crystal Ball Gazing
Sociology and PPR-Looking Forward
Glossary
References
Essential Medicine List, Policies, and the World Health Organization
Overview
Introduction
History and Development of Essential Medicines Policies
What are Essential Medicines?
Evolution of essential medicine concept
Rationale for Essential Medicines
Steps for the Development of EML
Essential Medicines Policies
Challenges Related to Essential Medicines
The Role of World Health Organization
Core Functions of WHO Essential Medicines Policies
Multiple Stakeholders Involvement in Formulating Essential Medicines Policies
Pharmaceutical Industry and Distribution Enterprises
The Role of Government
Impact in a Globalized World
Impact of Essential Medicines Policies in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
The Use in High-Income Countries
References
Implementation of Change in Pharmacy Practice
Change Management
Perception of Change Management in Pharmacy Practice
What is Changing in Pharmacy Practice?
Who is Involved Into the Process of Change?
Stakeholders' Support
Stakeholders' Power and Influence
Stakeholder Matrix and Engagement Strategies
Practical Application of a Stakeholder Engagement Matrix
The Eight Step Process of Successful Change
Set the Stage
Decide What to Do
Make It Happen
Make It Stick
Pilot Project to Manage the Change
Individual Response to the Change Process
Rogers' Innovation Adoption Curve
Barriers and Facilitators of Change in Scope of Pharmacy Practice
Cognitive Services and the Change Process for Their Implementation
References
Further Reading
Professional Boundaries
Introduction
Patient-Related Professional Boundaries
Patient Preferences as the Focus of Professional Boundaries
Boundaries with Health-care Professionals (Interprofessional Boundaries)
Professional Boundaries with Students with a Focus on the Emerging Role of Social Media
Conclusion
References
Drug Misuse and Dependence: The Role of Community Pharmacy
Introduction
Misuse, Addiction and Dependence-A Brief Review of Concepts and Terminologies
Misuse
Dependence
Addiction
Sociological Constructs of Addiction/Dependence
A Historical View of Pharmacy and Addictive Drugs-The British Experience
HIV/AIDS and the Emergence of a Harm Reduction´´ Approach
Harm Reduction Beyond HIV/AIDS-Take Home Naloxone
Take-Home Naloxone Programmes
Naloxone in Community Pharmacy
Challenges with Expansion of Naloxone Supply
Naloxone in the Future: New Formulations
Consumer Education with Naloxone Supply
Other Overdose Risk Factors
Medicinal Cannabis and Pharmacy
Pharmacy Distribution of Cannabis
From Illegal to Legal-The Growing Problem of Prescription Drug Misuse
Pharmaceutical Opioids
Other Prescription Medicines
The Pharmacists' Role in Management of Prescription Drug Dependence
The Future
List of Relevant Web Pages
References
Further Reading
Corporatization of Community Pharmacy
Introduction
Corporatization of Community Pharmacy
Rationale for Deregulation of Pharmacy Ownership
Access to Medicines and Pharmaceutical Services
Affordability of Medicines to the Consumer
Increase Consumer Choice and Quality of Service
Pharmacy Ownership Types
Pharmacist-only Ownership
Mixed Ownership
Open Ownership
Impact of Deregulation of Ownership Laws on the Community Pharmacy Market
Unbalanced Increase in Accessibility
Affordability of Medicines and Pharmaceutical Services in Deregulated Community Pharmacy Environments
Implications of Deregulation on Consumer Choice and Quality of Services Provided
Professional Implications of Deregulation
The Changing Community Pharmacy Landscape and the Way Forward
Glossary
References
Stigma Surrounding Medicine Use-HIV Exemplar
Introduction
Overview of HIV Medication Stigma
Review of HIV Stigma in Key Populations
MSM and Transgender
Women
Children and Youth
Prison Inmates
Drug Users
Sex Workers
Review of HIV Medication Stigma in Selected Regions
Africa
South, East, and Southeast Asia
Middle East
Parallels With Stigma Associated With Other Diseases
Discussion and Way Forward
Summary
Glossary
References
External Reference Pricing and Medicines
Introduction
Need for Pharmaceutical Pricing Policies
Medicine Price Regulation: Policies and Strategies
External Reference Pricing
Potential Benefits, Harms, and Risks of Using ERP
Implications of ERP Use in High-income Countries
Implications of ERP use in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
ERP and Pharmaceutical Manufacturers
Future of ERP
Abbreviations
Glossary
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Websites
Pharmacy Workforce Development: A Global Pathway to Gender and Health Equity
Pharmacy Workforce Development: A Global Imperative
Developing the Pharmacy Workforce for Universal Health Coverage
The Pharmaceutical Workforce Development Goals
Progressing the Goals to Progress Gender and Health Equity
Gender and Diversity Balances in the Workforce
Paving the Pathway to Equity
Global Pharmacy Workforce
Job and Career Satisfaction as an Equity Issue
Conclusion
References
Role of Pharmacists in Responding to Humanitarian Crisis
Learning Objectives
Take Home Lessons/What Needs to be Done
Background
Types of Humanitarian Crisis
Health-Care System During Crisis Conditions
The Phases of Response to Humanitarian Crisis and the Health-Care Professionals
Preparedness
Planning
Rescue
Rehabilitation
Role of Pharmacists
Delivering Pharmacy Services According to the Sociobehavioral and Cultural Needs of People
Preventing Antimicrobial Resistance and Disease Outbreaks
Good Donation Practices
Examples of Bad Medicines Donation
Case Stories Pharmacists Serving in Humanitarian Crisis Globally
FIP and Capacity Building of Pharmacist Working in Humanitarian Crisis
In Chronic Disease Management
Ensuring the Adequate Supply of Quality Essential Medicines in a Country with Poor Access to Essential Medicines (2005-2013)
Advances in Management of Humanitarian Crisis-Use of Technology and Involvement of Multidisciplinary Approach
References
Strengthening Health Systems in Low and Middle-Income Countries Through Evaluating Cancer Medicine Prices, Availability and Affordability: A Case Study and Proposal
Background
Aims and Objectives of the Proposal
Proposed Research Design and Methods
Stage 1: Piloting of Study Methods
Sampling Plan
Prices of Cancer Medicines
Affordability of Cancer Medicines
Qualitative Study
Suitability of the Approaches and Methodologies
Stage 2: Developing Global Pricing Database
Research Impact
List of Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
Definitions, Principles, and Concepts of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance
Introduction
Prescription Drugs
What is the Process for a Prescription Drug to be Approved for Use in Humans?
Phase I-Determine Safety
Phase II-Determine Efficacy
Phase III-Demonstrate Drugs Superiority to Standard Care/Control Condition
Phase IV-Postmarketing Surveillance Studies
What is the Point of Pharmacovigilance and Pharmacoepidemiology?
What is Pharmacovigilance?
Pharmacovigilance Definition
What is Pharmacoepidemiology?
Adverse Drug Events: The Burden to Patients and Society
Burden of Adverse Drug Events
Common Pharmacovigilance and Pharmacoepidemiology Data, Methods and Study Design
Data
Preclinical Study Data
Clinical Trial Data
Postmarketing Surveillance Data
Outcomes Data
Data Limitations
Methods
Levels of Evidence
Passive Surveillance
Spontaneous Adverse Reports
Case Reports
Case Series
Active Surveillance
Sentinel Sites
Medicine Event Monitoring
Registry
Comparative Observational Studies
Cross-sectional Study
Case-Control Study
Cohort Study
Descriptive Studies
Natural History of Disease
Drug Utilization Study
Limitations of Pharmacovigilance and Pharmacoepidemiological Studies
Challenges in Pharmacovigilance and Pharmacoepidemiology Studies
Signals
Future Directions for Pharmacovigilance and Pharmacoepidemiology
Social Media
Patient-Reported Adverse Drug Events
Conclusions
Glossary
References
Descriptive and Drug Utilization Studies
Introduction
What are Drug Utilization Studies?
Descriptive vs. Analytical Studies of Medicines Use
Types of Drug Utilization Studies
Methodological Considerations When Designing Quantitative Drug Utilization Studies
Study Design
Selecting a Data Source for the Drug Utilization Study
Medicines Exposure in Drug Utilization Studies
Incident and Prevalent Medicines Use
International Classification Systems used in Drug Utilization Research
Structure of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
Defined Daily Doses
Oral Morphine Equivalents
Defining and Interpreting Medicines Exposure
Data Analysis and Presentation of Results
Applications of Drug Utilization Studies
Evaluating the Rational Use of Medicines
Cross-national Studies of Drug Utilization
Informing Pharmacovigilance
Informing the Design and Evaluation of Health Policy and Educational Interventions to Optimize Medicines Use
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Case-Control Studies
Introduction
Defining and Designing Case-Control Studies
Origin of Case-Control Studies and Examples of Case-Control Studies Studying Medications
Selection of Cases and Controls
Defining Exposure
Calculating and Interpreting Odds Ratios
Dealing With Bias
Selection Bias
Survival Bias and Depletion of Individuals at Risk
Detection Bias
Admission Bias (Berkson's Bias)
Information Bias
Recall Bias
Protopathic Bias
Confounding Bias
Indication Bias
Adherence Bias
Types of Case-Control Designs
Traditional Case-Control Design (Case/Non-Case)
Nested Case-Control Studies
Case-Cohort
Case-Crossover
Strengths and Limits of Case-Control Designs
Conclusion
Further Reading
Cohort Studies-A Brief Overview
Introduction
A Brief History of Cohort Studies in Pharmacoepidemiology
Description: Defining and Designing Cohort Studies
Study Design
Study Purpose
Cohort Study Classification
Defining Exposure and Outcome(s) in Cohort Studies
Data Sources and Types of Data
Administrative Data
Clinical Data
Other Sources of Data
Combining Data Sources
Data Analysis and Interpretation
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Estimates
Statistical Methods
Cohort Studies and Causal Inference
Establishing Causality
Types of Bias
Methods for Reducing Bias
Strengths and Limitation of Cohort Studies-Comparison with Other Designs
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Cohort Studies and Experimental Designs
Cohort Studies and Other Observational Designs
Conclusion
References
Methodological Challenges in Epidemiological Studies
Introduction
Data Sources
Utilizing Existing Data Sources
Primary Data Collection
Strengths and Weaknesses of Different Study Designs
Cross-Sectional Studies
Case-Control Studies
Cohort Studies
Self-Controlled Studies
Finding the Exposed Participants
Selecting the Outcome
Assessing the Causality of Results
Typical Biases
Conclusion
References
Sources of Data Used in Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance
Introduction
Primary Data Sources
National Collections and Surveysand
Registries
Secondary Data
Administrative Database
Claims Databases
Primary Care Electronic Health and Medical Records
Other Transactional and Operational Data
Other Data Sources
Data Structure and Linkage
Summary of Data Sources Used in Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance
Conclusion and Future Opportunities
References
Further Reading
Special Population Studies to Inform Medication Safety-Pediatrics
Introduction
Legislative History of Pediatric Drug Use
Background
The United States
Europe
The Impact of Regulation on Pediatric Medicine
Pediatric Subpopulations
Pregnant Women
Neonates
Issues in Pharmacovigilance of Specific Drug Categories
Antimicrobials
Psychotropic Drugs
Current Needs in Pediatric Pharmacovigilance
Summary
References
Comparative Effectiveness Research
Introduction
Study Designs
Interventional Research
Designing Interventional Studies in CER
Research in Practice
Noninterventional Research
Designing Non-Interventional Studies in CER
Group identification
Data timing
Data source
Research in Practice
Interest Groups
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Economic Evaluation of Pharmaceuticals
Introduction
Overview of Health Economics
The Need for Economic Evaluations
Types of Economic Evaluations
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Cost-Utility Analysis
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Other Types of Economic Evaluations
Costs
Perspectives
Measuring Costs
Direct Medical Costs
Direct Nonmedical Costs
Indirect Costs
Discounting
Health Effects
Clinical Outcomes
Patient-Reported Outcome Measures (PROMs)
Life Years Gained and Quality-Adjusted Life Years Gained
Economic Evaluations Alongside Clinical Trials
Analysis Plan
Analysis of Cost Data
Display of Results and Consideration of Uncertainty
Economic Evaluations Using Modeling
Decision Analysis
Markov Modeling
Monte Carlo Simulation
Commonly Used Software Packages for Modeled Economic Evaluations
Utilization of Economic Evaluations by Decision Makers
The Future
References
Methodological Considerations in Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance Studies
Introduction
Definition of Medication Exposure
Strengths and Limitations of Using Different Data Sources in Pharmacoepidemiological Studies
Survey and Interview-Based Data
Claims and Dispensing Databases
Medical Record Databases
Definition of Exposure from Prescription and Dispensing Databases
Definition of Medication Adherence
Approaches for Controlling Bias and Confounding in Pharmacoepidemiological Studies
Approaches in Study Design Phase
Approaches to Confounding Control in Analysis Phase
Pharmacovigilance
Conclusion
Additional Reading
References
Application of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance Studies
Introduction
Pharmacoepidemiology: Impact on Clinical Practice
Drug Utilization Research
Assessment of Medication Adherence
Assessment of Adverse Drug Reactions and Medication Errors
Assessment of Population-level Prescribing
Polypharmacy and Hyperpolypharmacy Trends
Pharmacoepidemiology: Opportunities to Inform Evidence on Prescribing Practices and Medicines Optimization
Inappropriate Prescribing
Comparative Effectiveness Studies
Efficacy and Effectiveness
Health Economics and Pharmacoepidemiology
Pharmacoepidemiology and Medicines Policy
Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacovigilance in Pharmacy Practice
Social Media Platforms
Conclusion and Future Opportunities
References
Further Reading
Vol 3A - Encyclopedia of pharmacy practice and clinical pharmacy
Title page
Copyright page
Contents of all Volumes
List of Contributors to Volume 3-Part A
Editor Biographies
Editor-In-Chief
Section Editors
Foreword
Preface
Encyclopedia of Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy
Dedication
Professional Ethics in Pharmacy Clinical Governance
Introduction
Ethics in Pharmacy-A Brief History
Patient Rights and Legislation
The Emergence of Bioethics
Professional Governance
Theoretical Foundations in Pharmacy Ethics
Ethical Concerns in the Practice of Pharmacy Today
Direct to Consumer Advertising
Duality of Interest
Conscientious Objection
Whistle-Blowing
Social Media
Pharmacogenetics
Data Protection
Moral Reasoning and Decision-Making in Pharmacy
References
Further Reading
Clinical Pharmacokinetic Principles and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Introduction
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Clearance
Volume of distribution
Elimination half life
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Biological Matrices used for TDM
Blood (Plasma/Serum)
Dried Blood Spot
Saliva
Urine
Bioanalytical Techniques used for TDM
Immunoassay
HPLC
HPLC-MS/MS
Conditions Requiring TDM
Renal Impairment
Hepatic Impairment
Critically Ill Patients
Infants and Children
Elderly Patients
Obese Patients
Candidate Drugs Requiring TDM
Vancomycin
Antiepileptic Drugs
Anticancers
Ciclosporin
Amikacin and Gentamicin
Digoxin
Theophylline
Recent Advances in Clinical PK and TDM
Conclusion
References
Clinical Pharmacy Practice: Concepts, History, and Development
Clinical Pharmacy Concepts and Definitions
Historical View of Practice of Pharmacy
Hospital Pharmacy Services
Clinical Pharmacy
Clinical Pharmacy in Community Pharmacy Settings
Pharmaceutical Care
Quality Use of Medicines and Medicines Policy
Historical Perspectives
Future Perspectives
Overarching and Governance Statements
Theme 1-Procurement
Theme 2-Influences on Prescribing
Theme 3-Preparation and Delivery
Theme 4-Administration
Theme 5-Monitoring of Medicines Use
Theme 6-Human Resources, Training, and Development
References
Development of Therapeutic Guidelines
Synonyms
Definition of Terms
Terms and Concepts that are Interchangeable with Therapeutic Guidelines
The Difference between Evidence-based Guidelines and Consensus/Expert Guidelines
What Therapeutic Guidelines are not?
History of Development of Therapeutic Guidelines
Purpose of Developing Therapeutic Guidelines
Characteristics of Valid Therapeutic Guidelines
Benefits of Using Therapeutic Guidelines
Responsible Bodies for Issuing Guidelines
Development of Therapeutic Guidelines
Key Principles for Developing Therapeutic Guidelines
Therapeutic Guidelines Development Process
Identification of the Scope and the Need for the Guidelines
Forming Guideline Development Expert Groups
Expert groups
Planning meeting
Reviewing and Assessing Scientific Evidence
Translating Evidence into Therapeutic Guidelines
Grading recommendations
Dissemination of Guidelines
Scheduled Reviewing and Updating Guidelines
Withdrawal of guidelines
Cons/Harms/Limitations
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Glossary
Abbreviations
References
List of Relevant Websites
End-of-Life Care Including Pharmaceuticals in Palliative Care
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Messages
Introduction
Disease/Condition Information
Epidemiology
Etiology
Diagnosis
Clinical Presentation-Symptoms
Pain
Adjuvant Analgesics-Which is Better for What ()?
Nausea and Vomiting
Constipation
Dyspnea
Respiratory Secretions
Role of the Pharmacist
References
Syringe Drivers Resources
Australian Resources on Line
Selected Readings
Fundamentals of Pharmaceutical Care Planning
Pharmaceutical Care-Historical Perspectives
Pharmaceutical Care Practice
Background to Pharmaceutical Care Practice
Current Barriers of Pharmaceutical Care Practice
Current Enablers of Pharmaceutical Care Practice
Examples of Settings in Which Pharmaceutical Care Practice Can Be Applied
Pharmaceutical Care-Educational Aspects
Changing Expectations for Pharmaceutical Care Skills
Pharmaceutical Care Planning Education for Pharmacy Students and Experienced Pharmacists
Pharmaceutical Care Planning
The Use of Frameworks and Scaffolds for Effective Pharmaceutical Care Planning
Medicine-Related Problems Classification Systems
Categories of Factors to Consider When Identifying Medicine-Related Problems
Screening Tools and Guidance Documents to Support Prescribing Appropriateness and Identification of Medicines-Related Problems
Tools to Promote Safe and Effective Interprofessional Communication
Future Aspects and Threats
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Health Outcomes and Quality of Life
Introduction
Health Outcomes
Types of Outcomes
QoL and HRQoL: Historical Development
Relevance of HRQoL Measures: Perspectives of Practice and Research
Types of Quality of Life Measures
Generic Measures
Disease Specific Measures
HRQoL and Clinical Pharmacy Services: Measurement Issues
Choosing a Suitable HRQoL Measure for Clinical Pharmacy Services
Drug Therapy Focused Measures of Quality of Life: Rationale for the Need
Approaches to Developing a New Patient Reported Measure of Quality of Life
Validity
Content Validity
Construct Validity
Known-Groups Validity
Criterion Validity
Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Responsiveness
Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Military Pharmacy Practice Around the World and the Role of the Pharmacy Officer
Introduction
Historical Accounts of Military Pharmacists
Current Military Pharmacy Practice
Synthesis of Literature on Current Military Pharmacy Practice
Synthesis of Results and Discussion
Education and Training of Pharmacy Officers
Location and Employment of Pharmacy Officers
Patient Care in Garrison
Providing Care on Operations
Role of Pharmacy Technicians in the Military
Providing Patient Care
Basic Pharmacy Function
Clinical Pharmacy
Advanced Pharmacy Practice
Preventive Care
Health Care Logistics
Policy and Research
Impact of Pharmacy Officers
The Future of Military Pharmacy Practice
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Role of Pharmacist in Provision of Clinical Services in Prisons
Introduction
Population in Prisons
Country-wise Distribution
Common Health Problems in Prisons
Healthcare Facilities for the Prisoners
United Nations Guidelines
European Prison Rules by the Council of Europe
Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe
World Health Organization Health in Prisons Programme
The Organization of Prison Health Care
Pharmacy Services in Prisons
Role of Pharmacist
As the Director of Pharmacy
Provision of Drug Usage and Other Services
Provision of Nonprescription Drug Selling and Storing
Dispensing
Medication Administration
Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation Service
Special Need Services to the Patients
Education
Research
Conclusion
Glossary
References
List of Relevant Websites
Further Reading
Long-Term Care
Learning Objectives
Introduction and Need
Management
Care Models for Long-Term Conditions
The Chronic Care Model (CCM)
The Innovative Care for Chronic Conditions Model
The Kaiser Triangle Model
Assessment and Management of Frailty
Polypharmacy and Deprescribing
Clinical Medication Review
Care Home Considerations
Dysphagia
Role of Pharmacist in Health-Care Team Current and Future Trends in Pharmacotherapy and Management
Primary/Community Care
Secondary Care
Institutional Care
Cross-Sector/Transitions of Care
Pharmacogenomic Testing
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Websites
Prescribing Insulin for People With Diabetes in Secondary Care: Recommendations and Future Direction
Introduction
Risks Associated With Insulin Use
Medication Errors Involving Insulin
Insulin Prescribing Errors
Types of Insulin Prescribing Errors
Causes of Prescribing Errors
Interventions to Improve Insulin Prescribing
Insulin Prescribing Recommendations
Case Study from a Teaching Hospital in the United Kingdom
Prevalence and Types of Insulin Errors Locally
Insulin Prescribing on Admission
Insulin Prescribing on Discharge
Self-Administration with Insulin
Conclusion
References
Pharmacotherapy and Deprescribing
Background
What is Deprescribing?
Evidence of Outcomes of Deprescribing
Effects of Indirect and Generic Direct Deprescribing Interventions
Effects of Structured Direct Deprescribing Targeting Specific Classes of Medications
Effects of Structured Direct Deprescribing Targeting All Medications
Other Potential Benefits of Deprescribing
Safety of Deprescribing
Summary
Barriers to and Enablers of Deprescribing
Patients and Caregivers
Health-Care Professionals and the Health-Care System
Barriers
Enablers
The Process of Deprescribing
Pharmacists' Involvement in Deprescribing
Pharmacist Attitudes Toward Deprescribing
Consumer Attitudes Toward Pharmacists' Involvement in Deprescribing
Health-Care Professionals' Attitudes Toward Pharmacists' Involvement in Deprescribing
Future Directions of Pharmacists' Involvement in Deprescribing
Conclusions
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Webpages
Management of Cardiovascular Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Hypertension
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Messages and Summary
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology of Hypertension
Risk Factors for Hypertension
Pathophysiology of Hypertension
Complications of Hypertension
Investigations, Screening, and Diagnosis of Hypertension
Management of Hypertension
Non-pharmacologic Therapy
Pharmacologic Therapy
Initiation of Drug Therapy
Blood Pressure Goals and Targets Among Individual Patients
Uncomplicated Hypertension
Resistant Hypertension
Hypertensive Urgency and Emergency
Antihypertensive Medication Selection Based on Patients' Characteristics and Compelling Indications
The Role of Pharmacist in the Management of Hypertension
Evidence of Benefit of Pharmacist Interventions in Hypertension Management
Emerging Role of Pharmacist and Practice Models in Managing Hypertension
Medication Therapy Management
Team-based Interventions
Telehealth in Hypertension
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Acute Coronary Syndrome
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Messages
Introduction
Etiology
Epidemiology
ICD-10 Classification
Universal Definition
Diagnosis
Signs and Symptoms
Clinical Investigations
Differential Diagnosis
Prognosis
Risk Assessment
GRACE: An Example of Risk Stratification in Practice
Pharmacological Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Pharmacotherapy Upon Presentation of Chest Pain Symptoms
Confirmed ST-Elevated Myocardial Infarction Diagnosis
Reperfusion
Choice of Fibrinolytic
Acute Management in ST-Elevated Myocardial Infarction
Pharmacotherapy for Primary Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
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Aspirin
P2Y12 Inhibitors
Anticoagulant
Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors
Pharmacotherapy for Fibrinolysis
Antiplatelets
Anticoagulant
Secondary Prevention in ST-Elevated Myocardial Infarction
Aspirin
P2Y12 Inhibitors
Duration of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy
Beta-Blockers
Lipid Modification Therapy
Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) Inhibitors
Aldosterone Antagonist
Confirmed Non-ST-Elevated Acute Coronary Syndrome Diagnosis
Pharmacotherapy in Non-ST-Elevated Acute Coronary Syndrome
Acute Management in Non-ST-Elevated Acute Coronary Syndrome
Aspirin
P2Y12 Inhibitors
Anticoagulant
Fondaparinux
Unfractionated Heparin
Low Molecular Weight Heparin
Bivalirudin
Beta-Blockers
Secondary Prevention in Non-ST-Elevated Acute Coronary Syndrome
Lipid Modification Therapy
Antiplatelets
Beta-Blockers
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors
Aldosterone Antagonist
Anticoagulant
Interactions
Nitrates
Fibrinolytics
P2Y12 Inhibitors
ACE Inhibitors and ARBs
Beta-Blockers
PCSK9 Inhibitors
Statins
Side Effects
Nitrates
Fibrinolytics
P2Y12 Inhibitors
ACE Inhibitors and ARBs
Beta-Blockers
Statins
Pharmacogenomics in Acute Coronary Syndrome
Nonpharmacological Management
Lifestyle Modification
Pharmacist Role in the Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Monitoring
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Management of Coronary Artery Disease and Dyslipidemia and Pharmacist's Role
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Epidemiology and Pathophysiology of Coronary Artery (Heart) Disease
Definition of Coronary Artery Disease
Epidemiology and Global Burden of Coronary Artery Disease
Etiology and Pathogenesis of Coronary Artery Disease
Risk Factors of Coronary Artery Disease
Chronic Stable Angina
Pathophysiology of Chronic Stable Angina
Clinical Presentation of Chronic Stable Angina
Diagnosis of Chronic Stable Angina
Acute Coronary Syndromes
Pathophysiology of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Clinical Presentation of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Diagnosis of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Acute Pharmacological Management-Onset of Stabilization
Revascularizations: Nonsurgical and Surgical
Nonsurgical Interventions
Surgical Interventions
Parenteral Antithrombotic Therapy in Acute Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Primary Prevention of Coronary Artery Disease
Risk Factors of CHD
Nonmodifiable Risk Factors
Modifiable Risk Factors
Other CHD Predictors
Early Identification of At-risk Individuals and their Assessments
Primary Prevention Strategies for CHD: What can be Done in Primary Care?
Statins
Aspirin
Lifestyle Interventions
Blood Pressure Control
Smoking Cessation
Long-term Management of Coronary Artery Disease
Pharmacologic Agents for Secondary Prevention of Coronary Artery Disease
Antiplatelet Agents
Statins
ß-Blockers
Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibitors/Angiotensin Receptor Blockers
Others
Aldosterone Receptor Antagonists
Vaccines
Nonpharmacologic Management for Secondary Prevention of Coronary Artery Disease
Smoking Cessation
Physical Activity
Healthy Diet
Weight Management
Blood Pressure Management
Cholesterol Management
Dyslipidemia Management-New Updates
Pharmacological Management of Dyslipidemia
Statins
Fibrates
Bile Acid Sequestrates
Niacin
Omega-3 Fatty Acid
Cholesterol Absorption Inhibitors
New Therapies for Dyslipidemia
Nonpharmacological Management of Dyslipidemia
The Role of Pharmacist in the Care and Management of Patients with Coronary Artery Disease
Online Cardiovascular Risk Assessment Tools
References
Further Reading
Management of Cardiovascular Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Heart Failure
Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to the Condition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology of HF With Reduced Ejection Fraction
Pathophysiology of HF With Preserved Ejection Fraction
Clinical Presentation
Diagnosis
Detection and Management of Precipitating Factors
Common Comorbidities
Goals of Treatment
Pharmacological Management of the Condition
Pharmacotherapy in HF-rEF
Other Drugs for HF-rEF
Device Therapy
HF With Preserved Ejection Fraction (HF-pEF)
Specific Considerations Regarding Pharmacotherapy of Comorbidities in HF Sufferers
Atrial Fibrillation
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Depression
Diabetes
Gout, Arthritis, and Management of Pain
Hypertension
Iron Deficiency and Anemia
Renal Impairment
Complementary and Alternative Medicines in HF
Nonpharmacological Management of HF
Barriers to Effective Heart Failure Management
Strategies to Overcome Barriers to Optimal HF Management
HF Management Guidelines
Disease State Management Programs
Evidence for Pharmacists as Part of the Multidisciplinary Team
Current and Future Role of Pharmacists as Part of the Health-Care Team Managing Patients with HF
Specific Pharmacist Activities
Medication Uptitration
Medications to be Avoided in HF
Identifying Adverse Effects of Medicines
Identifying and Managing Drug Interactions
Ensuring Optimal Medication Adherence
Patient Education of Self-Care Strategies by Pharmacists
Disease Monitoring
Flexible Diuretic Regimen
Practical Guidance
Patient Resources
End-of-Life Care
References
Management of Cerebrovascular Disease and the Pharmacist's Role: Stroke
Learning Objectives:
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Clinical Presentations and Diagnosis of Ischemic Stroke
Management of Ischemic Stroke
Acute Treatment of Ischemic Stroke
Thrombolytic Agent
Antiplatelet Therapy
Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Receptor Antagonists
Anticoagulants
Acute Blood Pressure-lowering Agents
General Supportive Care
Secondary Prevention of Ischemic Stroke
Pharmacological Approach
Antihypertensive therapy
Antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy
Cholesterol lowering agents
Nonpharmacological Approach
Smoking cessation
Diet
Physical activity
Medication adherence
Monitoring and Complications Associated With Stroke
Monitoring of Alteplase Administration
Glycemic Control
Body Temperature
Complications
Role of Pharmacist in Health-Care Team: Stroke Management
References
Management of Cardiovascular Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Venous Thromboembolism
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology and Risk Factors
Diagnosis
Venous Thromboembolism Management and Therapeutic Regimens
Goals of Therapy
Treatment Modalities
Pharmacological Treatment Practicalities
Treatment Approach
Therapeutic Regimens
Selection of the Oral Anticoagulants
Management of Recurrent Thromboembolic Events
Gaps in Evidence
Thrombolytic Therapy
Nonpharmacological Strategies
Physical Activity and Ambulation
Vena Cava Filters
Intermittent Pneumatic Compression
Medical Elastic Stockings
Diet
The Role of Pharmacist in the Management of Venous Thromboembolism
Pharmacist in Venous Thromboembolism Management
Anticoagulant Drug Therapy Problems
Patient Education and Adherence
Prescribers Education
Transition of Care
Outpatient Settings
Economic Justification
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Management of Respiratory Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Asthma
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Condition
Epidemiology, Burden and Pharmacoeconomics
Etiology
Clinical Presentation
Diagnosis
Place of Pharmacotherapy in Context of Treatment Options
Controller Treatment
Inhaled Corticosteroids
Inhaled Long-Acting Beta Agonists
Leukotriene Receptor Antagonists
Long-Acting Muscarinic Antagonists
Theophyllines
Slow-Release Beta2-Agonist
Other Controller Therapies
Biologics
Acute Reliever Treatment
Short-Acting Beta-Agonists
Other Bronchodilators
Other Treatments
Nonpharmacological Treatment
Supported Self-Management
Trigger Minimization
Optimization of Treatment Delivery
Other Nonpharmacological Treatments
Management of Acute Asthma
Treatment of Acute Asthma in Adults
Treatment of Acute Asthma in Children
Monitoring of Treatment
What's Coming Up in Pharmacological Management
Immunotherapy
Changes in Management of Acute Symptoms (Reliever Treatment)
The Role of the Pharmacist in Asthma Management
Evidence for the Role of the Pharmacist in Asthma Management
Medication Management by Pharmacists in Asthma
Medication Supply
Medication Education
Medication Dose Monitoring
Medication Adherence
Inhaler Technique Assessment and Education
Disease Management by Pharmacists in Asthma
Assessing Asthma Control
Supporting Proactive Self-Management and Use of Written Asthma Action Plans
Assessing Trigger Factors
Assessing Lung Function
Managing Complex Patients
Health Promotion Activities by Pharmacists
Remuneration and Funding for Service Delivery
References
Management of Respiratory Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: COPD
Foreword
Learning Outcomes
Case Study 1
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Burden of COPD
Causes of COPD
Pathology of COPD
Pathogenesis
Pathophysiology
Diagnosis of COPD
Symptoms
Spirometry and Other Investigations
Case-Finding
Case Study 1
Assessment of Severity
Severity of Airflow Limitation
Symptom Assessment
Exacerbation Risk
Comorbidities
Combined Assessment-ABCD Assessment Tool
Other Investigations
Asthma-COPD Overlap
Case Study 2
What Assessments are Needed for Confirming ACO in Ms. Cloti?
What are the Management/Treatment Options for Ms. Cloti?
Challenges in COPD Management and the Pharmacist's Role
Support Patients to Quit Smoking
Non-Pharmacological Therapy
Pulmonary Rehabilitation
Pharmacological Therapy
Bronchodilators
Beta-2 Agonists
Muscarinic Antagonists
Methylxanthines
Antiinflammatory Agents
Inhaled Corticosteroids
Oral Glucocorticoids
Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE-4) Inhibitors
Antibiotics
Mucolytics and Antioxidant Agents
Other Antiinflammatory Agents
Combination Inhaler Therapy
Combination Bronchodilator Therapy
Triple Therapy
Pharmacological Treatment Algorithm
Vaccination
COPD Self-Management and Action Plans
COPD Exacerbations-Prevention and Management
Pharmacological Treatment of Exacerbation
Bronchodilators
Glucocorticoids
Antibiotics
Other Adjunct Therapy
Respiratory Support
Hospital Discharge and Follow-up
Advanced Stages of COPD
Relevant Websites
Permissions
Nomenclature
Glossary
References
Further Reading
ATS/ERS Guidelines on Performing Spirometry Testing
Recommendations for Treatment of ACO
Management of Respiratory Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Cough, Colds, and Sore Throats and Allergies (Including Eyes)
Background
Common Cold, Influenza, Sore Throats, and Cough
The Common Cold
Influenza
Pharmacological Management
Cough
Sore Throat
Pain and Fever
Nasal Congestion
Rhinorrhea
Diarrhea and Vomiting
Antiviral Medicines
Combination Products
Complementary Medicines
Nonpharmacological Management
When to Refer
Allergies
Allergic Rhinitis
Pharmacological Management
Intranasal Corticosteroids (INCS)
Antihistamines (H1)
Leukotriene Receptor Antagonists
Decongestants
Anticholinergics
Mast Cell Stabilizers
Nonpharmacological Management
Allergic Conjunctivitis
Management
Antihistamines (H1)
Mast Cell Stabilizers
Ocular Decongestants
Lubricating Drops and Saline
Nonpharmacological Management
When to Refer
The Role of the Pharmacist
References
Further Reading
Relevant Websites
Management of Respiratory Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Cystic Fibrosis
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Messages
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology
Genetic Basis of Cystic Fibrosis
Consequences of Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator Gene Mutation
Clinical Presentations
Pancreatic Involvement
Pulmonary Involvement
Gastrointestinal Involvement
Nutritional Abnormalities
Other Abnormalities
Diagnosis
Sweat Test
Ancillary Test
Management of Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic Fibrosis-Associated Pulmonary Exacerbations
Pharmacological Management
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator modulators
Potentiator
Ivacaftor
Corrector
Lumacaftor
Tezacaftor
Combination therapy
Read-through agents
Antibiotics
Bronchodilators
Mucolytic and mucoactive agents
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidants agents
Nonpharmacological Management
Chest physiotherapy
Lung transplantation
Supplemental oxygen
Gene therapy
Cystic Fibrosis-Associated Diabetes
Insulin
Cystic Fibrosis-Associated Vitamin Deficiency and Bone Diseases
Multivitamins
Bisphosphonates
Prevention of Cystic Fibrosis-Associated Complications
The Role of Pharmacist in the Management of Cystic Fibrosis
Counseling of Parents on Newborn Screening
Routine Medication Reviews
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Discussion of Medication History with Cystic Fibrosis Patients
Counseling on Medication Adherence
Monitoring of Off-label Use of Medicines in Cystic Fibrosis
Implementation of Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs
Communication with Community Pharmacists and General Practitioners after the Patient's Discharge from the Hospital
Accessibility of Patients Toward Novel Drugs
Homecare Pharmacy Services
Medicine Information Services
Reduction in Wastage of Central Intravenous Additives
Medication Supplies and Cost-Effective Use of Medicines
Participation in Inpatient Ward Rounds
Prescription Evaluation and Dispensing of Medicines in Cystic Fibrosis Centers
Medicine Optimization and Reconciliation
References
Further Reading
Management of Gastrointestinal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Coeliac Disease
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Condition
Disease/Condition Information
Coeliac Disease Epidemiology
Etiology
Wheat/Gluten-Related Conditions that may be Mistaken for Coeliac Disease
Irritable bowel syndrome
Wheat allergy (IgE-mediated) and wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis
Etiology of Coeliac Disease
Diagnosis
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Gluten loading
Diagnosis steps ()
Serogenetic tests
Coeliac-specific blood antibody tests
Clinical Presentations
Management of Coeliac Disease
Place of Pharmacotherapy in Treatment Options
Pharmacological Management
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Oat gluten controversy and food labeling
Need to supplement
What's Coming Up in Pharmacological Management
Innovations to Combat Gluten Contamination
Tablet breaking down contaminant gluten
Kits to test for gluten contamination
On the Horizon
Vaccine for those with coeliac disease
Drug to reduce inflammation caused by consuming gluten
Monitoring and Measuring-How do we Know That Treatment is Working?
Nonpharmacological Management
Prevention
The Role of the Pharmacist in the Health-Care Team
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Evidence for role of pharmacist
Medication management
Counseling/listening skills
Role in the interprofessional team
Triage
References
Suggested Readings
Relevant Websites
Constipation
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Misconceptions About Bowel Habits
Incidence and Burden of Disease
Etiology of Constipation
Children
Diagnosis
Children and Infants
Need for Referral
Children
Treatment-Nonpharmacologic
Prokinetic Agents
Role of the Pharmacist
References
Management of Gastrointestinal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Natural Barriers Against Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Lower Esophageal Sphincter
Crural Diaphragm
Angle of His
Risk Factors
Obesity
Age
Infants and Children
Elderly
Pregnancy
Smoking
Hiatal Hernia
Asthma
Prognosis
Signs and Symptoms
Typical Esophageal Symptoms
Atypical Esophageal Symptoms
Diagnosis of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Empirical Trial
Upper Endoscopy
Ambulatory pH or Reflux Monitoring
Esophageal Manometry
Barium Esophagram
Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Nonpharmacological Interventions
Pharmacological Interventions
Nonraft-Based Pharmaceutical Formulations
Antacids
Sucralfate
Histamine-2 receptor antagonists
Proton pump inhibitors
Alginate-Based Raft Pharmaceutical Formulations
Surgical Treatment
Role of Pharmacist in the Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Pharmacist's Initiative to Treat Different Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Conditions
Education and Counseling Approaches on Medicine Usages
Pharmacist's Role in Treatment Follow-up
References
Further Reading
Management of Gastrointestinal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Presentation
Diagnosis
Complications
Treatment
Nonpharmacological Therapy
Pharmacological Therapy
Aminosalicylates
Corticosteroids
Immunomodulators
Anti-TNF Agents
Anti-Integrins
Interleukin-12/23 Antibodies
Novel Agents
Others
Treatment Approaches: Ulcerative Colitis
Induction of Remission
Mild-Moderate Distal Colitis
Mild-Moderate Extensive Colitis
Severe Colitis
Maintenance of Remission
Mild-Moderate Distal Colitis
Mild-Moderate Extensive Colitis
Therapy for Refractory Disease
Treatment Approaches: Crohn's Disease
Induction of Remission
Ileocecal Disease
Mild disease
Moderate disease
Severe disease
Fistulizing/Perianal Disease
Colonic Disease
Extensive Small Bowel Disease
Esophageal and Gastroduodenal Disease
Maintenance of Remission
Postsurgery Maintenance
Therapy for Refractory Disease
Role of Pharmacist
Pharmacists' Patient Care Process
Patient Education
Treatment Adherence
Self-Management
Monitoring Therapy Outcomes
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Adverse Drug Effects
Drug-Drug Interactions
Conclusions
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Guidelines
International
North America
Europe
Asia
Articles
Management of Gastrointestinal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Nausea and Vomiting
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Features
Diagnosis
Nonpharmacological Management
Pharmacological Management: General Approaches
Antiemetic Drugs
Specific Clinical Situations
Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting
Acute and Delayed Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting
Other Types of Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting
Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting
Radiotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting
Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy
Motion Sickness
Role of Pharmacist
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Guidelines
Articles
Management of Gastrointestinal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Peptic Ulcer Disease
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Clinical Features
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of H. pylori-induced Ulcer
Treatment Options
Treatment Selection Criteria
Treatment of NSAID-Induced Ulcers
Prevention of NSAID-Induced Ulcers
Maintenance Therapy
Idiopathic Ulcers
Personalized Pharmacotherapy
Role of Pharmacist
Pharmacists' Patient Care Process
Patient Education
Monitoring of Therapy Outcomes
Adverse Drug Effects
Drug Interactions
Conclusions
Glossary of Terms
References
Further Reading
Guidelines
United States
Canada
China
Japan
United Kingdom
Consensus reports
International
Articles
Management of Renal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Acute Kidney Injury
Learning Objectives
Key concepts
Introduction
Definition and Classification of Acute Kidney Injury
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pre-renal AKI
Intrinsic AKI
Post-renal AKI
Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
Prevention and Management
Risk Assessment
Ensure Adequate Hydration
Prevention of Contrast Medium Nephropathy
Glycemic Control
Prevention of Nephrotoxin-Induced AKI
Amphotericin
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors, Angiotensin Receptor Blockers, Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
Aminoglycosides
Summary of Medications Used in the Prevention of AKI
Treatment of AKI
General Management
Hydration and Management of Volume Status
Electrolyte Management
Sodium Disorders
Acid-Base Balance
Potassium Disorders
Calcium, Phosphorous and Magnesium Disorders
Nutritional Considerations
Renal Replacement Therapy
Drug Dosing in AKI
Pharmacist's Role in AKI
References
Further Reading
Management of Renal Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Chronic Kidney Disease
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
Introduction
Definition and Staging of CKD
Epidemiology
Etiology and Risk Factors
Pathophysiology
Clinical Presentation and Assessment
Management of CKD
Non-Pharmacological Therapy for CKD
General Approach to the Management of CKD
Factors Causing Progression of CKD
Diabetes
Blood Pressure Management
Dyslipidemia
Cardiovascular Disease in CKD
Treatment OF CKD Complications
Anemia
Bone and Mineral Disorders
Electrolyte Imbalance in CKD
Treatment Options for ESKD
Role of Pharmacist
References
Management of Endocrine Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Adrenal Insufficiency
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Epidemiology and Etiology
Primary Adrenal Insufficiency
Secondary and Tertiary Adrenal Insufficiency
Clinical Presentation of Adrenal Insufficiency
Diagnosis of Adrenal Insufficiency
Management of Adrenal Insufficiency
Acute Adrenal Insufficiency
Chronic Adrenal Insufficiency
Glucocorticoid Replacement
Mineralocorticoid Replacement Pharmacotherapy
Dehydroepiandrosterone
Education, Sick Day Management and Stress Dosing
Current and Future Trends
Role of Pharmacist
Conclusions
References
Management of Endocrine Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Diabetes
Introduction
What Is Diabetes?
Disease Definitions
Pathophysiology of T1DM and T2DM
Long-Term Complications
Diagnosis
Diabetes Screening and Prevention
Risk Factors for Diabetes
Screening Tools
Guidelines for Screening
Pharmacists´ Role in Screening
Psychosocial Issues
Guidelines for Diabetes Management
Current Goals of Therapy
Lifestyle Modification
Pharmacotherapy and Treatment Algorithms
Initiating Pharmacotherapy in T2DM
Intensifying Pharmacotherapy in T2DM
Self-Management Support
Pharmacists Role in Diabetes Disease Management Support Through Pharmaceutical Care
Pharmacist Interventions in Diabetes
Evidence for Impact of Pharmacy Diabetes Interventions Applying the ECHO Model
Clinical Outcomes
Glycemic control
Cardiovascular-BP, lipids, BMI, absolute CVD risk
Medication adherence
Humanistic/social outcomes
Economic outcomes
Documentation of Interventions
Conclusion
Glossary
Abbreviations
References
Further Reading
Management of Endocrine Disorders and the Pharmacists' Role: Thyroid Disorders
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
Introduction to the Thyroid and Thyroid Disorders
Thyroid Disorders-An Overview
Prevalence and Etiology
Consequences of Poorly Managed Thyroid Disorders
Diagnosis
Management of Hypothyroidism
Symptoms
Treatment
Levothyroxine
Monitoring of Therapy
Poor Outcomes of Treatment
Other Therapies
Management of Hyperthyroidism
Symptoms
Treatment
Surgery
Antithyroid Medications
Radioactive Iodine
Other Therapies
Monitoring
Role of Pharmacist in Health-Care Team-Current and Future Roles in Pharmacotherapy and Management
Suggestions for Counseling Patients with Hypothyroidism
Main Factors to Include in Counseling for Hyperthyroidism
References
Contraception and the Pharmacist's Role
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
Introduction to Contraception
History
Nonpharmacological Contraceptive Options
Male Condoms
Female Barrier Methods
Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptives
Medroxyprogesterone Acetate Injection
Intrauterine Devices
Progestogen Implants
Oral Contraceptives
Other Hormonal Contraceptives
Hormonal Vaginal Rings
Combined Hormonal Patches
Effectiveness of Contraceptives
Continuation and Gaps in Therapy
Use of Contraception Around the World
Emergency Contraception
Pharmacists' Roles with Ongoing Contraception
Conclusion
References
Management of Urologic Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Introduction
Treatments for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Medical Therapy
Behavioral Modification
Phytotherapy
Oral Medications
Alpha-Blockers
Action and Indications
Efficacy
Side Effects
Combination of Alpha-Blockers and 5ARIs
Combination of Alpha-Blockers and Anticholinergics
Recommendations and Warnings
5-Alpha-Reductase Inhibitors
Action and Indications
Efficacy
Side Effects
Combination of 5ARIs and Alpha-Blockers
Recommendations and Warnings
Anticholinergic Agents
Action and Indications
Efficacy
Side Effects
Combination of Anticholinergics and Alpha-Blockers
Recommendations and Warnings
Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibitors
Action and Indications
Efficacy
Side Effects
Combination of PDE-5 Inhibitors and Other Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Medications
Recommendations and Warnings
Surgical Therapy
Endoscopic Approaches
Transurethral Resection of the Prostate
Endoscopic Laser Treatments for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Holmium Laser Enucleation and Holmium Laser Resection of the Prostate
Open Simple Prostatectomy
Role of Pharmacist
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Management of Erectile Dysfunction and the Pharmacist's Role
Learning Objectives
Key Concepts
Introduction to Erectile Dysfunction
Erectile Dysfunction-An Overview
Prevalence and Etiology
Diagnosis
Quality of Life
Management of Erectile Dysfunction
Lifestyle Measures
Pharmacological Treatment
PDE5 Inhibitors
Vacuum Erection Devices
Intercavernous Injections
Other Therapies
Herbals
Counterfeit Products and Undeclared Ingredients
Advice
The Role of the Pharmacist in the Healthcare Team-Current and Future Roles in Pharmacotherapy and Management
Non-Prescription Supplies
Conclusion
References
Management of Urologic Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role in Urinary Incontinence
Objectives
Anatomy
Physiology
Normal Urinary Functioning
Definition and Prevalence of Incontinence
Overall Principles on How Incontinence Occurs
Types of Incontinence
Stress Incontinence-Symptoms and Causes
Urge Incontinence-Symptoms and Causes
Mixed Incontinence-Symptoms and Causes
Overflow Incontinence-Symptoms and Causes
Nocturnal Enuresis-Symptoms and Causes
Management of Incontinence
Stress Incontinence-Management
Urge Incontinence-Management
Overflow Incontinence-Management
Nocturnal Enuresis-Management
Incontinence Appliances and Pads
Role of the Pharmacist
An Example Case Study of the Medication Review Process
Is this true? How can the Pharmacist Help?
References
Management of Rheumatology Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Gout and Related Conditions
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Epidemiology
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Features
Diagnosis
Treatment
Acute Gout
Urate-Lowering Therapy
Other Crystal-Induced Joint Disorders
Calcium Pyrophosphate Dihydrate Crystal Deposition Disease
Basic Calcium Phosphate Deposition Disease
Calcium Oxalate Deposition Disease
Role of Pharmacists
Pharmacists' Patient Care Process for Gout
Patient Education and Counseling
Monitoring of Therapy Outcome
Monitoring of Adverse Drug Reactions
Monitoring of Drug Interactions
Conclusions
Glossary
References
Further Reading
Guidelines
Articles
Management of Rheumatology Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Osteoporosis
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Condition
Disease/Condition Information
Management of Condition
Role of Pharmacist in Health-care Team
Risk Factors
Prevention/screening
Diagnosis
Administration
Adverse Drug Reactions and Their Management
Drug-Drug Interactions
Improving Adherence
References
Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis and the Pharmacist's Role
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Rheumatoid Arthritis
Epidemiology-Burden of Disease
Etiology
Diagnosis
Clinical Presentation-Signs and Symptoms
Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Pharmacological Management
NSAIDs and Analgesics
Corticosteroids
Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs
Biologic Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs
Anti-TNF bDMARDs
Anti-B Cell Therapy
T-lymphocyte Co-Stimulation Blocker
Interleukin Inhibitors
Protein Kinase Inhibitors
Nonpharmacological Management
Physical Activity
Occupational Therapy
Weight Reduction and Surgery
Dosage Forms
Dose Tapering
Role of the Pharmacist in the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Role in Medication Management
Role in Pharmaceutical Care Services
RA Medication Assessment Tool
Role in Decision Making
Role in Patient Counseling
Role in the Interprofessional Team
Important Drug-Drug Interactions
Role of Primary and Secondary Care
Conclusion
References
Research Articles
Websites
Management of Eye and Ear Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Glaucoma
Glaucoma
Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Risk Factors for Glaucoma
Age
Family History
Ethnic Origin
Diabetes Mellitus
Myopia
Smoking
Other Factors-Long-term Steroid Users, Migraine and Peripheral Vasospasm, Hypertension
Angle Closure Glaucoma
Diagnosis
Open Angle Glaucoma
Angle Closure
Examination of Eye Structure
Optic Disk
Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer
Assessment of the Anterior Chamber
Examination of Eye Function
Visual Field Testing
Intraocular Pressure Measurement
Timing of Intraocular Pressure Measurements
Central Corneal Thickness
Target Intraocular Pressure
Treatment
Systemic Effects of Topical Ophthalmic Medications
Prostaglandin Analogs
ß-Blockers
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
a2-Agonists
Cholinergic Agonists
Laser Therapy and Surgery
The Role of the Pharmacist
Ensuring Optimal Effect of Medications, Adherence, and Persistence
Administration Timing of Medications
Minimizing and Addressing Side Effects
Preservative Toxicity and Effects on the Eye
Screening
References
Management of Eye Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Eye Infections
Introduction to Eye Infections
Epidemiology
Diagnosis
Fluorescein and Slit Lamp Biomicroscopy
Conventional Pathology and Microbiology Testing
Molecular Testing: Polymerase Chain Reaction
Concepts in Ocular Pharmacotherapy
Mode of Drug Delivery
Antimicrobials
Adjuvant Therapy
Corticosteroids
Anticholinergics
Treatment of Eye Lid and Conjunctiva Infections
Blepharitis
Anterior Blepharitis or Staphylococcal Blepharitis
Posterior Blepharitis or Seborrheic Blepharitis
Ophthalmic Cellulitis
Periorbital Cellulitis
Orbital Cellulitis
Bacterial Conjunctivitis
Chlamydial Conjunctivitis
Gonococcal Conjunctivitis
Viral Conjunctivitis
Treatment of Corneal Infections
Bacterial Keratitis
Fungal Keratitis
Acanthamoeba Keratitis
Atypical Keratitis
Herpes Simplex Keratitis
Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus
Treatment of Posterior Eye Infections
Endophthalmitis
Bacterial Endophthalmitis
Fungal Endophthalmitis
Viral Retinitis
Cytomegalovirus Retinitis
Acute Retinal Necrosis
Ocular Toxoplasmosis
The Role of the Pharmacist
Hygiene and Antimicrobial Stewardship
Referral
Adherence
References
Epilepsy: Management of Neurological Disorder and the Pharmacist's Role
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Epilepsy
Seizures and Epilepsy
Diagnosis of Epilepsy
Classification of Seizures
Classification of Epilepsies
Etiology of Epilepsy
Epileptogenesis
Pharmacotherapy, Pharmacoresistance, and Epilepsy Prevention
Choice of Therapy According to Seizure Type
Status Epilepticus
Treatment of Febrile Convulsions
Pharmacokinetic Properties of AEDs
Posology of AEDs
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of AED's
Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling
Contraindications and Use of AEDs in Pregnancy and Lactation
Side Effects of AEDs
Chronic side effects
Hypersensitivity and other serious cutaneous adverse drug reactions
Drug Interactions of Antiepileptic Drugs
Role of Pharmacists in Management of Patients with Epilepsy
Epilepsy Management and Importance of Multidisciplinary Clinical Team
References
Further Reading
Management of Neurological Disorders and Pharmacist's Role: Multiple Sclerosis
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Message
Introduction
Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis
Pathophysiology of Multiple Sclerosis
Etiology of Multiple Sclerosis
Genetic Susceptibility of Multiple Sclerosis
Environmental Factors Associated With Multiple Sclerosis
Clinical Presentation--Signs and Symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis
Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis
Management of Multiple Sclerosis
Pharmacological Therapy
Treatment of Acute Attacks
Disease-Modifying Therapy
Summary of Recommendations from Clinical Practice Guidelines
Non-pharmacological Treatment
Monitoring Therapy in Multiple Sclerosis
Prevention
The Role of Pharmacist in the Management of Multiple Sclerosis
References
Further Reading
Selected Reading/Resources
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Management and the Role of the Pharmacist
General Overview of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
History
Epidemiology
Etiology
Diagnosis
Clinical Presentation
The Management of ADHD
International Guidelines for the Management of ADHD
Pharmacological Management
Psychostimulants
Nonstimulants
Atomoxetine
Other nonstimulants
Novel Pharmacotherapy for ADHD
Psychoeducation
Behavioral Management
Parent-Led Behavioral Therapy
Classroom-Based Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Prevention
Antenatal and Postnatal Care
Balanced Diet
Preschool Strategies
Parenting Quality
Role of Pharmacists in the Management of ADHD
Evidence for the Role of the Pharmacist
Educational Programs for School Personnel
Pharmacist-Led ADR Monitoring
Expanding the Role of Pharmacists
Medication Optimization
Patient engagement and risk communication
Regular medication reviews
Health-care interface pharmacy services
Improving medication adherence
Pharmacist-Led ADHD Screening Services
Reducing Stigma
References
Anxiety Disorders
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Condition
Brief History of Anxiety Disorders
Condition Information
Definition/Classification of Anxiety Disorder and Diagnosis
Epidemiology
Etiology
Place of Pharmacotherapy in Context of Treatment Options
Benzodiazepines
GAD
Panic Disorder
PTSD
OCD
Serotonergic Reuptake Inhibitors
GAD
Panic Disorder
PTSD
OCD
Tricyclic Antidepressants
Buspirone
Pregabalin
Antipsychotic Medications
ß-Blockers
a-Blockers
What is Coming Up in Pharmacological Management
Novel Pharmacological Targets
Psychedelic Drugs
Digital Health Interventions
Non-Pharmacological Management
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
GAD
Panic Disorder
PTSD
OCD
Psychodynamic Therapy
Mindfulness and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
Self-Help Techniques
Role of the Pharmacist in Managing and Prescribing in Anxiety Disorders
Optimizing Treatment
Managing Adverse Effects of Pharmacological Treatment
Managing Drug Interactions
SSRIs
Benzodiazepines
Management of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal
Special Populations
Children and Adolescents
Women of Childbearing Age
Older-aged Patients
Monitoring Patients with Anxiety
References
Bipolar Affective Disorder
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Condition
Brief History of BPAD
Condition Information
Definition/Classification of BPAD
Epidemiology
Etiology
Diagnosis
Signs and Symptoms
Treatment Considerations in BPAD
Nonpharmacological Management
Adjunctive Psychotherapy in the Acute Phase
Adjunctive Psychotherapy in the Maintenance Phase
Pharmacotherapy Treatment Options
Acute Mania and Hypomania
Lithium
Valproate
Carbamazepine
Antipsychotics
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Acute Depression
Monotherapy
Combination Therapy
Switching
Choosing Maintenance
What's Coming Up in Pharmacological Management
Novel or Experimental Agents
Monitoring and Measuring
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Treatment Nonresponse
Role of the Pharmacist in Managing and Prescribing in BPAD
The Pharmacist in the Multidisciplinary Team
Improving Adherence and Facilitating Informed Consent
Education-Shared care/decision-making
Improving Adherence
Addressing Practical Barriers
Addressing Perceptual Barriers
Optimizing Pharmaceutical Care
Optimizing Treatment Efficacy
Side Effect Management
Special Populations
Children and Adolescents
Women of Childbearing Age
Older-aged Patients
Summary
References
Further Reading
Major Depressive Disorder
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Messages
Introduction to the Condition
Epidemiology of MDD
Etiology of MDD
Diagnosis of MDD
Definition/Classification of MDD
Signs and Symptoms
Treatment of MDD
Stepped Care
Pharmacological Treatment
First-Line Therapy
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Second-Line Therapies
Serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor
TCAs
Other Treatments
Mirtazapine
Bupropion
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Other antidepressant medicines
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies
Antidepressant Prophylaxis
Refractory Depression
Switching Antidepressants
Withdrawing Antidepressants
Nonpharmacological Treatment
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Psychotherapy
Emerging Treatments in MDD
Role of the Pharmacist
Adherence
Management of Side Effects
Advice to Prescribers
Self-Management and Promotion of Support Networks
Challenges
Future Potential Roles
References
Management of Mental Health Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Schizophrenia
Introduction
Epidemiology/Burden of Disease
Etiology of Schizophrenia
Clinical Presentation of the Positive, Negative, and Cognitive Symptoms
Diagnosis of Schizophrenia
Treatment Options
Pharmacological and Nonpharmacological Management
New Developments
Monitoring and Measuring-How do we Know That Treatment is Working?
Role of a Mental Health Pharmacist
Independent Prescribing for the Pharmacist
Case Studies
Conclusion
References
Acne Vulgaris
Learning Objectives
Key Points
Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Psychosocial Factors
Diagnosis
History and Examination
Differential Diagnosis
Pharmacological Management of Acne Vulgaris
Topical Agents
Salicylic Acid
Benzoyl Peroxide
Retinoids
Azeleic Acid
Sulphones
Antibiotics
Systemic
Antibiotics
Hormonal Agents
Isotretinoin
Non-Pharmacological Treatment
Light Therapy
Chemical Peels
Diet
Scarring Treatment
Role of the Pharmacist in the Management of Acne Vulgaris
References
Resources
Management of Dermatology Disorders and the Pharmacist's Role: Acne, Psoriasis, Atopic Dermatitis, and Fungal Infections
Learning Objectives
Key Points
Introduction to Common Skin Disorders
Prevalence of Common Skin Disorders
Etiology of Common Skin Disorders
Clinical Presentations of Common Skin Disorders
Diagnosis of Common Skin Disorders
Management of Common Skin Disorders
Nonpharmacological Treatment
Acne Vulgaris
Atopic Dermatitis (AD)
Psoriasis
Fungal Infections
Pharmacological Treatment
Acne Vulgaris
Atopic Dermatitis
Psoriasis
Fungal Infections
Counseling Patients About Common Skin Disorders
Role of Community Pharmacist in Health Care Team-Current and Future Trends in Management
Diagnosis, Counseling, and Consultation Roles in Dermatological Care
Role asInitial Screener´´ and Final Checker´´ in Dermatological Care
Health Promotion Roles in Dermatological Care
Roles in Medicine Use Review and Personalized Dermatological Care
Pharmacist Remuneration in Dermatological Care
Conclusion
References
Management of Infectious Diseases and the Pharmacist's Role-Antibiotic Stewardship
Introduction and Need
The Role of the Pharmacist in Antimicrobial Stewardship
References
Bacterial Infections and the Role of the Pharmacist
Learning Objectives
Take-Home Messages
Introduction
Types of Bacteria and Clinical Spectrum of Antibacterials
Source of Infection
Intention of Antibiotic Use and Ongoing Review
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacodynamics
Route of Administration
Adverse Effects
Summary of Major Antibacterial Classes
Aminoglycosides
Carbapenems
Cephalosporins
Fluoroquinolones (Quinolones)
Glycopeptides
Lincosamides
Macrolides
Nitroimidazoles
Penicillins
Rifamycins
Tetracyclines
Other Antibacterials
Role of the Pharmacist in Optimizing Antibacterials
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
Antimicrobial Stewardship
Education and Counseling of Patients
References
Management of Infectious Diseases and the Pharmacist's Role: Fungal Infections
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Mucocutaneous Fungal Infections
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
Epidemiology and Etiology
Pathophysiology and Risk Factors
Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
Pharmacological Management
Oropharyngeal and Esophageal Candidiasis
Epidemiology and Etiology
Pathophysiology and Risk factors
Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
Pharmacological Management
Oropharyngeal candidiasis
Esophageal candidiasis
Invasive Fungal Infections
Epidemiology and Etiology
Pathophysiology and Risk factors
Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
Pharmacological Management
Invasive Aspergillus
Invasive Candidiasis
Role of Pharmacists
Identification and Management of Drug-Related Oral Candidiasis
Xerostomia
Denture wearing
Inhaled corticosteroid users
Selection of Antifungal Dosage Form
Patient Counseling
Antifungal Susceptibility Testing and Antifungal Resistance
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Antifungal Agents
Monitoring and Management Plan of Adverse Reactions and Drug Interactions of Antifungal Treatment
Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Guidelines
Articles
Pharmacotherapy of Viral Infections and the Role of Pharmacists in the Prevention and Treatment of Viral Diseases
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Disease State
Human Papillomavirus
Herpes Simplex
Varicella Zoster Virus
Herpes Zoster
Influenza
Cytomegalovirus
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C
Condition Management
Pharmacological Management
Neuraminidase Inhibitors
Zanamivir
Oseltamivir
Peramivir
Laninamivir
Adamantanes
Guanine Analogues
Aciclovir
Valaciclovir
Famciclovir
Ganciclovir
Valganciclovir
Penciclovir
Antivirals for Hepatitis C
Other Antivirals
Ribavirin
Peginterferon Alfa
Prevention
Role of Pharmacists in Optimizing Antiviral Treatment
Role of Community Pharmacists in Managing Viral Presentations
Role of Hospital Pharmacists in Managing Viral Presentations
References
Nutritional Anemias
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction to Anemia
Chapter Focus
Anemia Epidemiology
Etiology of Nutritional Anemias
Iron Deficiency
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Clinical Presentation of Nutritional Anemias
Iron Deficiency
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Diagnosis of Nutritional Anemias
Iron Deficiency
Summary of the Diagnosis of Iron Deficiency Anemia
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Summary of the Diagnosis of Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Management of Iron Deficiency Anemia
Pharmacological Management
Oral Therapy
Oral iron therapy preparations
Dose of oral iron therapy
Intravenous Therapy
Indication for Intravenous Therapy
Intravenous Preparations and Dose
Summary of Pharmaceutical Management of Iron Deficiency
Nonpharmacological Management
Dietary Intervention
Indication for Dietary Intervention
Bioavailability of Dietary Iron
Infants
Blood Transfusion
Management of Vitamin B12 Deficiency Anemia
Pharmacological Management of Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Intramuscular Injection
Oral Therapy
Nonpharmacological Management
Summary of Vitamin B12 Management
Monitoring and Measuring of Iron and Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Iron Deficiency
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Role of the Pharmacist in the Management of Nutritional Anemias
Role in the Health-Care Team
Counseling in Pharmacologic Management of Nutritional Anemias
Counseling in the Management of Iron Deficiency
Gastrointestinal Side Effects to Oral Iron Therapy
Enhancing Absorption of Oral Iron Supplements
Drug Interactions
Counseling in the Management of Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Drug Interactions
Advances in the Management of Nutritional Anemias
Therapeutic Advances
Pharmacy-Managed Clinics
Intravenous Therapy
References
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Special Population: Drug Dose Adjustment in Hepatic Impairment
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Pathophysiology of Liver Disease
Assessing Liver Function
Pharmacokinetic Alterations in Chronic Liver Disease and Considerations in Medications Use
Hepatic Clearance
Absorption
Medication Distribution
Renal Dysfunction in Liver Disease
Metabolism
Pharmacokinetic-Related Cases
PK Case 1
Commentary/expert opinion
PK Case 2
Commentary/expert opinion
PK Case 3
Commentary/expert opinion
Understand the Pharmacodynamic Alterations in Chronic Liver Disease Patients with Respect to Medication Use
Sedatives and Opioids
Nephrotoxics and Antihypertensives
Pharmacodynamic-Related Cases
PD Case 1
Commentary/expert opinion
PD Case 2
Commentary/expert opinion
PD Case 3
Commentary/expert opinion
A Clinical Perspective on Dosage Adjustment and Medication Use in Hepatic Impairment
Conclusion
Useful Links and Further Readings
References
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Special Populations: Geriatrics
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Medication Use in Older Adults
Polypharmacy
Medication Use
Inappropriate Medication Use
Medication-Related Harms and Adverse Drug Events
Medication Use and the Physiologic Changes of Aging
Drug Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Elimination
Prescribing Cascade
Role of Pharmacist
Practice Settings
Preventing Adverse Drug Reactions
Medication Reviews
Beers Criteria
STOPP/START and STOPPFrail
Comparisons of STOPP/START and Beers
Drug Burden Index
Medication Appropriateness Index
Screening and Monitoring
Economic Considerations
Dosing/Formulations
Adherence Aids
Communication
References
Further Reading and Resources
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Special Population: Pediatrics
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
An Overview of the Pediatric Population
Physiology
Pharmacokinetic Changes
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Excretion
Dosage Forms for Children
Neonatal Considerations
Excipients
Off-Label Medicine Use and Manipulation of Licensed Medicines
Packaging and Compatibility of Medicines
Place of Pharmacotherapy in Children
Role of the Pharmacist
Consent and Parental Care
Counseling
Parents and Caregivers
The Child
The Multidisciplinary Team
Vaccination
(Best Practice Advocacy Centre New Zealand, 2014; PHARMAC et al., 2017)
Emerging and Future Roles of the Pharmacist
Advanced Clinical Roles
Pharmacist Prescribers
Educators
Vaccinators
Public Health Promotion and Care
Summary
References
Further Reading
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Special Population: Pregnancy and Lactation
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Pregnancy
Physiological Changes in Pregnancy
Factors Affecting Pharmacokinetics of Drugs During Pregnancy
Risk Categorization of Drugs for Use in Pregnancy
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Lactation
Use of Drugs in Breastfeeding and Lactation
Factors Affecting Pharmacokinetics of Drugs During Breastfeeding
Breast Milk
Pharmacological Properties of Drugs
Maternal-Related Factors
Infant-Related Factors
Measurement of Infant Exposure to Drugs During Lactation
Minimizing Infant Exposure to Drugs While Lactating
Commonly Used Drugs Contraindicated During Breastfeeding
Categorization of Drugs for Use During Breastfeeding
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in Commonly Encountered Disorders of Pregnancy
Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
Clinical Presentations and Complications of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
Management of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
Diabetes During Pregnancy
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Diabetes During Pregnancy
Clinical Presentation and Complications of Diabetes During Pregnancy
Management of Diabetes During Pregnancy
Hematological Disorders of Pregnancy
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Hematological Disorders of Pregnancy
Clinical Presentations and Complications of Hematological Disorders of Pregnancy
Management of Hematological Disorders of Pregnancy
Gastrointestinal Tract Disorders During Pregnancy
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Common Gastrointestinal Tract Disorders of Pregnancy
Clinical Presentations and Complications of Common Gastrointestinal Tract Disorders of Pregnancy
Management of Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy
Management of Heartburn During Pregnancy
Psychiatric Disorders During Pregnancy
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Postpartum Depression
Clinical Presentation and Symptoms of Postpartum Depression
Management of Postpartum Depression
Preterm Labor
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Preterm Labor
Clinical Presentation of Preterm Labor
Management of Preterm Labor
Induction of Labor
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Labor Induction
Management of Induction of Labor
Early Pregnancy Loss
The Role of Pharmacist in Pregnancy and Lactation
Challenges of Medication Management in Pregnancy and Lactation
The Role of Clinical Pharmacists in Pregnancy and Lactation
Other Specialized Roles of Clinical Pharmacists in Pregnancy and Lactation
References
Further Reading
Clinical Pharmacy Considerations in ICU
Introduction
Clinical Pharmacist Contributions to the Multidisciplinary Critical Care Team
Intensivist
Critical Care Nurses
Respiratory Care Practitioners
Dieticians
Rehabilitation Therapists
Knowledge and Skill Requirements of Clinical Pharmacist in the ICU
Management of Infections
Anticoagulation Therapy
Sedation and Analgesia
Reducing Adverse Drug Events in the ICU
A General Approach to Clinical Pharmacy in Critically Ill Patients
Absorption Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Pathophysiology Changes During Critical Illness that can Affect Gastrointestinal Function
Common Absorption Issues in ICU Setting
The Use of Nasogastric or Nasojejunal Tube Feeding
The Use of Parenteral Nutrition
Managing Absorption Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Distribution Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Pathophysiological Changes during Critical Illness that can Affect Drug Distribution
Common Drug Distribution Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Drug Distribution into the Cerebrospinal Fluid
Drug Distribution into the Lungs
Drug Distribution in Critically Ill Obese Patients
Drug Distribution in Burns Patients
Managing Drug Distribution Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Drug Clearance Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Pathophysiological Changes in Critically Ill Patients that can Affect Drug Clearance
Common Drug Clearance Issues in Critically Ill Patients
Augmented Renal Clearance
Hypoalbuminemia
Renal Replacement Therapy
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation
Indwelling Surgical Drains
Managing Drug Clearance Issues in the Critically Ill Patients
Promotion of Best Pharmacy Practice in ICU
Standardized Practice Guidelines and Protocols
Altered Drug Dosing Approaches
Continuing Education Exercises
Generation of New Knowledge through Research Undertaking
References
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Learning Objectives
Take Home Messages
Introduction
Incidence and Burden of Disease
Etiology
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment; Nonpharmacological
Treatment; Pharmacological
Role of the Pharmacist
What to Tell the Patient
What the Pharmacist Should Know
References
Management of Wounds and the Pharmacist's Role: Woundcare
Patient-Centered Care
Best Practice Resources
Define Etiology
Wound Healing Principles
Primary Intention
Secondary Intention
Physiology of Wound Healing
Phases of Healing
The Inflammatory Phase
The Proliferative Phase
The Maturation Phase
Moist Wound Management
Health Status
Immune Function
Diabetes
Age Factors
Body Build
Nutritional Status
Mechanical Stress
Debris
Temperature
Desiccation
Maceration
Infection
Chemical Stress
Systemic Medications
Lifestyle
Smoking
Alcohol
Wound Assessment
Patient Assessment
Wound Assessment
Color
Depth
Exudate
Peri-Wound Area
Complex and Chronic Wounds
The Diabetic Foot
Pressure Injury
Risk Assessment
Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis
Wounds and the Older Person
Acute and Simple Wounds
Management of Simple Trauma Wounds
Burns
Primary Requirements
Pathophysiology of Burns
First Aid
Infection Versus Contamination
Wound Dressing and Bandages
Passive Dressings
Tulle Dressings
Interactive Dressings
Film Dressings (for Wounds With no to Low Exudate)
Absorbing Dressings
Hydrocolloid Dressings (for Wounds With Low Exudate)
Foam Dressings (for Wounds With Medium to High Exudate)
Hydroactive Dressings (Foam-Like) (for Wounds With Medium to High Exudate)
Alginate Dressings (for Wounds With Medium to High Exudate)
Alternate Fiber Dressings (for Wounds With Medium to High Exudate)
Hydrogels (for Dry or Sloughy Wounds)
New Hydrogels
Antibacterial Dressings
Iodine
Cadexomer Iodine Dressings
Inadine
Povidone-Iodine
Silver
New Antiseptics
Dialkylcarbamoylchloride Coated Fiber (DACC)
Octenidine
Hypochlorites and Hypochlorous Acid
Bandages and Bandaging
Retention Bandages
Support Bandages
Tubular Compression
Compression Bandages
High Stretch Compression Bandages
Short Stretch Bandages
Other Forms of Compression
Multilayer Bandages
Contraindication for the Use of Compression Bandages
Caution
Compression Stockings
Stocking Measurement
Conclusion
Web Sites
References
Further Reading
Direct Oral Anticoagulants and the Patient-Reported Outcomes: Synthesis and Advances
Introduction
Advances in Anticoagulants Use
Patient-Reported Outcomes
Tools for Measuring Patient-Reported Outcomes
DOACs and Patient-Reported Outcomes: Evidence Synthesis Method
DOACs and Patient-Reported Outcomes: Search Results
Patient-Reported Satisfaction
Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL)
Patent-Reported Expectations, Compliance, or Adherence
Patient Acceptance and Preferences
Cost Implications
Appendix 1: Study Selection Process, PRISMA Flow Chart
References
Vol 3B - Encyclopedia of pharmacy practice and clinical pharmacy
Title page
Copyright page
Contents of all Volumes
List of Contributors to Volume 3-Part B
Editor Biographies
Editor-In-Chief
Section Editors
Foreword
Preface
Encyclopedia of Pharmacy Practice and Clinical Pharmacy
Dedication
Becoming A Pharmacist: Education and Training
Introduction
Needs-Based Education
Competency-based Education
Competence and Competency
A Model for Competency-Based Pharmacy Education
Guiding Principles
Needs Assessment
Competency Framework
Pharmaceutical Services
Essential Knowledge and Skills and the Curriculum
Active Learning and Assessment Frameworks
Experiential Training
Conclusion
Glossary
References
List of Web Pages
Further Reading
Becoming a Pharmacy Assistant and Technician: Education and Training
Introduction
Influence of the Evolution of the Role of the Pharmacist
Legislation
Scope of Practice
Supervision
Registration/Certification of Pharmacy Technicians
Basic Education and Training
Extended Role for Pharmacy Technicians
References
Further Reading
Certification, Credentialing, and Privileging in Clinical Pharmacy
Introduction
Certification
The Growth of Certification and Specialization
Differences Between Certifications and Certificates
Credentialing and Privileging
Credentialing
Privileging
Designing a Pharmacist Credentialing and Privileging Process
Conclusion
Acknowledgement
Glossary
References
Clinical Pharmacy Professional Standards in European Union
Introduction
Context
Current Standards
Commentary on Practice in Europe
References
Clinical Pharmacy Professional Standards in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Introduction
Clinical Pharmacy in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Pharmacy Credentialing and Specialization
Professional Standards
Conclusion
References
Clinical Pharmacy Professional Standards in United States of America and Canada
Background
Clinical Pharmacy Standards in the United States
The Standards and Their Applications
Qualifications
Process of Care
Documentation
Collaborative, Team-Based Practice, and Privileging
Professional Development and Maintenance of Competence
Professionalism and Ethics
Research and Scholarship
Other Responsibilities
Relevant Standards in Canada
Extensions of the Standards
Clinical Pharmacist Competencies
Template for the Evaluation of the Clinical Pharmacist
Scope of Practice for Clinical Pharmacists
Comprehensive Medication Management in Team-Based Care
The Future: Standards-Driven Professional Development
Bibliography
Competency Standards for Clinical Pharmacists
Introduction: Global Perspective
What is Competency?
What are the Characteristics of Competency?
How to Develop Competency Standards or Frameworks?
How to Operationalize it?
Is There One That Can Be Used as a Guide?
What is the Need for Competency Standards in Clinical Pharmacy Practice?
How Have Other Countries Approached it?
Australia
Canada
Ireland
New Zealand
United Kingdom
United States
Conclusion
Glossary
References
Continuing Professional Development for Clinical Pharmacists
Introduction
The CPD Cycle
Reflect
Plan
Learn
Apply
Evaluate
Record and Review-Learning Portfolios
Closing Identified Gaps
CPD Versus CE
Additional Competency Assessments
Challenges and Opportunities
Conclusion
References
Evaluating and Developing Clinical Skills
Introduction to the Clinical Skills in Pharmacy
Educational Requirements
Definition of the Clinical Skills
Clinical Skills Content and Development
Tools and Principles to be Used in Clinical Decisions
Using Drug-Related Problems Classifications
Creating PICO Questions-Clinical Significance and Interpretation
Evidence-Based Practice in Health, University of Canberra, Library (accessed Aug 9, 2018)
Setting the Priorities
Conducting Interventions
Planning the Process of Care
Managing the Risk
Communication, Motivation, and Counseling
Using the Clinical Guidelines
Evaluation and Assessment of the Clinical Skills-How to Achieve it?
On Site Evaluation
Mini CEX and CbD
Objective Structured Clinical Examination
Other Methods for Clinical Assessment
Development of the Clinical Skills
Interprofessional Aspects of Clinical Skills in Pharmacy
Teaching and Learning Clinical Skills
References
Dynamic Relationship Between Education, Regulation, and Practice
Introduction
Discussion and Conclusions
References
Experiential Education for Clinical Pharmacists
Background
Educational Theories of Experiential Education
Constructivist Theory of Experiential Learning
Sociocultural Theory of Experiential Learning
Reflective Practice in Experiential Education
Experiential Education Framework
Experiential Learning Curriculum
EU Regulatory Framework for Experiential Pharmacy Education
US Regulatory Framework for Experiential Pharmacy Education
Experiential Learning Outcomes
Students Assessment
Professional Practice Sites
Pharmacy Preceptors
Student Pharmacists
Quality Assurance in Experiential Education
Advancing Experiential Education in Clinical Pharmacy
Preceptor Development Program
Integrating Students into Professional Pharmacy Practice
Acknowledgment
Glossary
References
Further Reading
List of Relevant Websites
Indicators of Quality of the Patient Care in Hospital and Community Settings
Quality of Health-Care Services
Good Pharmacy Practice
Indicators of Quality of Pharmaceutical Care
Classification of Quality Indicators in Health Care
How to Validate and Adopt the Set of Indicators in Different Pharmacy Settings?
Measurement and Documentation
Pharmacy Services and Indicators of Quality-Some Examples
CPD/CE Activities of the Pharmacy Workforce
Patient Safety
Rational Pharmacotherapy
Prevention and Public Health
Strategy, Management, and Organization
Interprofessional Collaboration and Integrated Patient Care
Follow up and Documentation
Point of Care and Screenings in Community Pharmacy
Conclusion, Summary, and Way Forward
References
Interprofessional Clinical Education
Introduction
History of the Interprofessional Education Movement
Evolution of IPE: The Case of the United States
The IOM Quality of Health Care in America Project Impact on IPE
IPEC Competencies for Interprofessional Education and Collaborative Practice
Dissemination and Revision of the 2011 IPEC Core Competencies
A Proposal to Change Pharmacy Practice for Improved Patient and Population Health
Implementation of IPE
Barriers and Success Factors
Development of IPE Programs
Defining Competence
Evaluation of IPE
Faculty Development
Summary
References
Further Reading
Leadership in Pharmacy
Introduction
How do Pharmacy Leaders Come to be?
How Can You Discover and Document Your Leadership Abilities?
What Theories Support Leadership in Pharmacy?
Trait Theories
Behavioral Theories
Lewin's Leadership Styles of Decision-Making
Likert's Leadership Systems
Contingency Theories
Power and Influence Theories
Transactional Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Other Theories
Exemplary Leadership
Servant Leadership
What Style of Leadership is Best Suited for You, the Audience, and for the Pharmacy Challenges You Face?
How have Other Leaders Approached Challenges in Pharmacy?
Learning from and Leading through Failure
Failure to Communicate Clear Expectations
Failure to Follow through on Measuring and Presenting Results
Failure to Delegate Appropriately
Failure to Hold Team Members Accountable
Failure to Use Coaching Strategies
Failure to Engage in Mentoring and Networking
Failure to Balance Priorities
Where Can You go to Continue Your Pharmacy Leadership Journey?
Further Resources
References
Further Reading
Learning and Teaching Methods to Develop Clinical Skills in Pharmacy
Learning and Teaching
What Do We Mean by Clinical Skills?
Levels of Learning
UK Example
Learning, Teaching, and Assessing Skills
Lectures, Workshops, and Tutorials
Other Methods of Learning and Teaching
Reflection
Returning to Our Example
Choice of Methods and/or Approaches to Learning, Teaching, and Assessment
How do Students Learn? Signposting to Learning Theory
Constructivism as a Theory
Active Learning
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
Team-Based Learning (TBL)
Motivation for Learning
Feedback and Feed-Forward
Principles of Curriculum Development
Evaluating Courses
Summary
References
Further Reading
Needs-Based Education in Pharmacy
The Foundation of Needs-Based Considerations in Pharmacy Education
Determining Needs
The Reality of Pharmacy Education Around the World and Barriers
Professional Services
Competencies
Education
Conclusion
References
Developing and Implementing Patient Safety Standards Within the Pharmacy Practice and Education Settings
Introduction
Concept of Patient Safety
Traditional Approach to Patient Safety
Changing the Safety Paradigm
The Need for Patient Safety Standards
Developing Standards
Data Collection Methods
Direct Observation
Patient Chart Review
Computer Screening
Focus Groups and Structured Interviews
Spontaneous Reporting
Investigation Methods
Root Cause Analysis
The London protocol
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
Investigation Method Limitations
Standard Development Process
Medication Safety Standards
Medicine Nomenclature
Safe Medication Practices
The Need for Global Standards
Education Standards
The World Health Organization Patient Safety Curriculum
Education as a Strategy to Improve Safety
Future Directions
Glossary
References
Pharmacy Professional Standards Defining Quality of Services
Historical Development of Professional Standards
Concept of Quality of Pharmaceutical Care Services
National Initiatives
Australia
USA
Canada
UK
Bermuda
Singapore
South Africa
International Initiatives Focusing on Quality of Services
Pharmaceutical Group of the European Union
Forum of Americas
European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and Healthcare (EDQM), Council of Europe
Pharmaceutical Care Network Europe
Summary
References
Further Reading
Professionalism as the Core Competency in Pharmacy
Consensus on the Importance of Professionalism
Less Commonality on What Professionalism Entails
Abilities, Competencies, Objectives
Entrustable Practice Activities (EPAs)
Some Components of ProfessionalismPresentation Professionalism´´ Versus ``Existential Professionalism´´
Fiducial Relationships: The Essence of Professionalism
Occupations and Professions
Mercantile and Fiducial Relationships
Challenges to Professionalism in the 21st Century
Preserving Professionalism as the Core Outcome in Pharmacy
Faculty and Administration
Students
Outcomes/Criteria
Mapping a Curriculum
Teaching and Assessing Professionalism
Dissenting Views
Summary
References
Further Reading
Quality Assurance and Quality Advancement of Pharmacy Education
Introduction
Purpose of the Quality Assurance Process
Models for Quality Assurance
Environmental Analysis
Needs-Based Education
Stakeholders
National Vision
The Quality Assurance Organization
Mission and Vision
Legal Status or Other Oversight Requirement
Governance
Standards
Pillars and Foundations of Quality
Policies and Procedures
Eligibility Criteria
Self-Study Process and Report
On-Site Evaluation Team
On-Site Evaluation
Accreditation Action and Term
Monitoring During the Accreditation Term
Adverse Actions
Public Disclosure
Quality Advancement of Pharmacy Education
Quality Assurance and Advancement of Continuing Education and Continuing Professional Development Activities
Quality Advancement in CE/CPD
Conclusion
References
Using Patients and Other Forms of Simulation in Teaching Clinical Skills
Introduction/Background
Rationale for Simulation-Based Education
Educational Theory
Andragogy
Experiential Learning Theory
Reflective Practice
Profession and Curriculum Evolution
Simulation for Formative and Summative Assessments
Demand for Clinical Experiences
Early Evidence Examining the Roles in Experiential Education
Implementation of SBE
Simulation Framework and Facilitation
Pre-Briefing
Simulation Scenario
Debriefing
Barriers to Simulation Implementation
Simulation Modalities
Fidelity vs. Technology
Standardized Patients
Patient Simulators
Partial-Task Trainers
Computerized Models
Hybrid Simulations
Simulated Learning Environment
Current Uses of Simulation-Based Education for Teaching Clinical Skills
Clinical Skills
Professional Attitudes and Behaviors
Patient Counseling and Communication Skills
Patient Safety and Medication Errors
Interprofessional Education
Discussion
Glossary
References
Pharmacist Workforce Issues
1 Introduction
2 Overview of the Global Pharmacist Workforce
2.1 Availability of Pharmacists
2.2 Education Trends
2.3 The Role of Pharmacists
2.4 Diversity in the Pharmacist Workforce
3 Demand for Pharmacist Services
3.1 Labor Demand Curves
3.2 Changes in Population Size and Composition
3.3 Increases in National and Personal Incomes
3.4 Rising Prevalence of Various Disorders
3.5 Development of New Pharmaceutical Products and Technological Innovation
3.6 Other Considerations
4 Conclusions
References
Pharmacometrics and its Application in Clinical Practice
Background
Introduction to Pharmacometrics
Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetics
Population Pharmacokinetics
Nonlinear Mixed Effect Modeling
Use of NONMEM® for Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling
Analysis Planning
Dataset Creation
Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)
Development of Base Model
Covariate Analysis
Model Evaluation
Internal validation
External validation
Predictive performance assessment
Goodness of fit plots
Bootstrap analysis
Visual predictive checks
Model Application
Advantages of NONMEM
Role of Pharmacometrics in Clinical Decision Making
Dose Optimization
Sample popPK Profiles of Critical Medicines
Vancomycin
Valproic acid
Meropenem
Phenobarbital
Prevention of Drug Interactions
Conclusion
References
Dynamic Relationship Between Education, Regulation, and Practice: Case Studies and Examples
Introduction
Case Studies
Brazil
Background
Education and Training of Pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationship Between Practice and Regulation
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
Europe (With Specific Examples From Spain)
Background
Education and Training of Pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Main Challenges Facing Pharmacy Practice in General
The Relationship Between Regulation and Education
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
Japan
Background
Education and training of pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationship Between Regulation (Accreditation) and Education
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
Nigeria
Background
Education and Training of Pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationship Between Education and Practice
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
Oman
Background
Education and Training of Pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationship Between Practice and Regulation
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
Romania
Background
Education and training of pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationship Between Education and Practice
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
Taiwan
Background
Education and training of pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight and Quality Assurance of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationships Between Education/Practice and Practice/Regulation
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Implications and Future Planning
USA
Background
Education and training of pharmacists
Regulation of Practice
Oversight (State and Federal) and Quality Assurance (Accreditation) of Education
Pharmacy Practice
The Relationship Between Practice, Education, and Regulation ()
Resources
Drivers for Advancement
Barriers to Advancement
Important Lessons Learned
Acknowledgments
References
Index
Author Index
