Front
Cover
Inside Front Cover
Half-Title Page
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MARINE MAMMALS
Copyright © 2018
Dedication
Contents
Contents by Subject Area
Anatomy and Physiology
Behavior and Life History
Ecology and Population Biology
Evolution and Systematics
Human Effects and Interactions
Organisms and Faunas
Research Methodology
Contributors
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the First and Second Editions
Marine Mammal Species
Order Carnivora
Family Otariidae
Family Odobenidae
Family Phocidae
Family Ursidae
Family Mustelidae
Order Cetartiodactyla
Suborder Cetacea
Family Balaenidae
Family Neobalaenidae
Family Eschrichtiidae
Family Balaenopteridae
Family Physeteridae
Family Kogiidae
Family Ziphiidae
Family Platanistidae
Family Iniidae
Family Lipotidae
Family Pontoporiidae
Family Monodontidae
Family Delphinidae
Family Phocoenidae
Order Sirenia
Family Trichechidae
Family Dugongidae
References
A (1-49 pp.)
Abundance Estimation
I. Distance Sampling
A. Line-transect Sampling
1. Survey Design
2. Assumptions
3. Estimation
4. Multiple-Covariate Distance Sampling
5. Modeling Density Surfaces
6. Uncertain Detection on the Transect Line
7. Automated Design Algorithms and GIS
B. Strip-Transect Sampling
C. Cue Counting
D. Acoustic Surveys
II. Mark–Recapture
A. Estimation from a Tagged Subset of Animals
1. The Petersen Estimator
2. Chapman’s Modified Estimator
3. Assumptions
4. Estimation of Pinniped Numbers by Mark–Recapture
5. Mark–Recovery Methods
B. Use of Natural Markings
C. Spatially Explicit Capture–recapture
III. Migration Counts
IV. Colony Counts
References
Aerial Behavior
I. Whale Breaching
II. Dolphin Leaping
III. Other Active Aerial Behaviors
IV. Potential Reasons for Aerial Behaviors
V. Fluking
Age Estimation
I. Introduction
II. Growth Layer Terminology
III. Calibration of Annual Layers
IV. Tissues Commonly Used to Obtain Absolute Age Estimates
V. Consistency and Repeatability of Absolute Age Estimates
VI. Growth-Layer Tissues as Recording Structures
VII. When Absolute Age Estimates are not Feasible
References
Aggressive Behavior, Intraspecific
I. Male–Male Competition for Mates
A. Pinnipeds
B. Cetaceans
C. Other Aquatic Mammals
II. Size, Special Weapons, and the Consequences of Aggression
III. Avoiding Fights
IV. Group Raids and Other Forms of Male Harassment of Reproductive Females
V. Female Agonistic Behavior
VI. Aggression Toward Young
A. Aggression Toward and Killing of Young by Males
B. Abuse and Killing of the Young by Females
C. Male Violent Behavior Toward Interspecific Females and Pups
References
Albinism
I. Pigmentation
II. Albinism and Marine Mammals
Amazon River Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Ambergris
Antarctic Fur Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Antarctic Marine Mammals
I. Background
II. Antarctic Species
III. Diet
IV. Exploitation and Recovery
V. Conservation
References
Archaeocetes, Archaic
References
Arctic Marine Mammals
I. Introduction
II. Cetacean Community
III. Pinniped Community
IV. Polar Bears
V. Important Habitats for Arctic Marine Mammals
A. Sea Ice
B. Polynyas
C. Glacial Ice
D. Nonice Habitats
VI. Conservation and Management Challenges
References
Atlantic Spotted Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Australian Sea Lion
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Australian Snubfin Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
B (51-151 pp.)
Baculum
Baiji
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Baikal Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Balance
I. Introduction
II. Comparative Morphology
III. Functional Interpretation
Baleen
References
Baleen Whales (Mysticeti)
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
A. Sound Production
B. Swimming and Migration
C. Social Activity
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Baleen Whales, Evolution
I. Introduction
II. Toothed Mysticetes
III. Edentulous Mysticetes
IV. Tooth Loss, Origin of Baleen, and Bulk Filter Feeding
References
Barnacles
I. Life History
II. Sessile Barnacles
III. Stalked Barnacles
IV. Barnacles and Marine Mammals
References
Basilosaurids and Kekenodontids
I. Characteristics
II. Taxonomy
III. Life History
A. Locomotion
B. Feeding
C. Habitat and Ecology
IV. Phylogenetic Relationships
Beaked Whales, Overview
I. Classification
II. Diagnostic Characteristics and Taxonomy
III. Distribution and Ecology
A. Habitat
B. Behavior
C. Vocalizations
D. Diet
E. Social Organization
IV. Life History and Reproduction
Bearded Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Behavior, Overview
I. Foraging Behavior: How to Find, Select, and Process Prey
II. Avoiding Predators and Defense From Predators
III. Migration and Orientation
IV. Competition and Agonistic Behavior
V. Courtship and Sexual Behavior
VI. Parental Behavior
VII. Social Behavior and Social Relationships
VIII. Conclusions
References
Beluga Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
VI. Life History
VII. Interactions With Humans
References
Berardius Beaked Whales
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Biogeography
I. Types of Distributions
II. Ecology and History Determine Distribution
III. Taxonomic Patterns
IV. Conclusion
References
Biotelemetry
I. Archival Tags
II. Transmitting Systems
III. Biological Insights
IV. Challenges and Future Developments
References
Blubber
I. The Structure of Blubber
A. Tissue Characteristics
B. Variation in Thickness and Proximate Composition
C. The Lipids in Blubber
II. Role of Blubber in Temperature Regulation: Heat Conservation and Dissipation
III. Role of Blubber in Energy Storage and Water Balance
IV. Role of Blubber in Locomotion
Blue Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
VI. Interactions With Humans
Bones and Teeth, Histology of
I. Bone
A. Bone Structure and Composition
B. Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling
C. Marine Mammal Bone
II. Cementum
A. Cementum Structure and Composition
B. Marine Mammal Cementum
III. Dentine
A. Dentine Structure and Composition
B. Marine Mammal Dentine
IV. Enamel
A. Enamel Structure and Composition
Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, Common Bottlenose Dolphin
I. Characters and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops aduncus, Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Bottlenose Whales
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Bowhead Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Bow-Riding
References
Brain
I. Brain Size
II. Forebrain
III. Cerebellum
IV. Cranial Nerves
V. Conclusion
References
Breathing
I. Introduction
II. Breathing and Breathing Patterns
III. Behavioral State
IV. Social Aspects of Breathing
Bryde’s Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Human Interactions
References
Burmeister’s Porpoise
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Bycatch
I. Examples
A. Eastern Tropical Pacific Tuna Purse Seine Fishery
B. The Baiji
C. The Vaquita
D. Pinnipeds
II. Causes for Concern
III. Attempts to Resolve the Problem
References
C (153-237 pp.)
California, Galapagos, and Japanese Sea Lions
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans and Anthropogenic Effects
References
Callosities
Cape and Australian Fur Seals
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Captivity
I. The Debate
II. The Impact
III. Regulations for Collection, Care, and Maintenance
A. International Regulations
B. Care and Maintenance
IV. Issues
A. Experiencing Captive Marine Mammals
B. Scientific Value of Captive Marine Mammals
C. Captive Breeding for Conservation
D. Rehabilitation
E. Release
F. Funding
G. Military Use of Marine Mammals
Caspian seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Cephalorhynchus Dolphins
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Cetacean Ecology
I Introduction
II. Habitat
III. Prey
A What Do Cetaceans Eat?
B How Do Cetaceans Capture Prey?
C How Do Cetaceans Locate Prey?
IV. Competitors and Coexistence
V. Predators
VI. Schooling
VII. Macroecology
VIII. The Role of Cetaceans in Marine Ecosystems
Cetacean Evolution
I. Patterns of Evolution
II. Ecology Past and Present
III. Major Radiations
IV. Evolutionary Processes
V. Evolution and Geography
VI. Life History Traits
VII. Taxonomic Longevity
VIII. Diversity and Disparity
IX. Extinction
References
Cetacean Life History
I. Methods of Studying Life History
II. General Characteristics of Cetacean Life Histories
III. Characteristics of Female Life Histories
IV. Characteristics of Male Life Histories
Cetartiodactyla
Circulatory System
I. Introduction
II. General Anatomy
A. Heart
B. Arterial/Venous Systems
C. Blood Volume
III. Structural Adaptations
A. Vascular Thermoregulatory Adaptations
B. Aortic Bulbs/Windkessels
C. Vascular Retia
D. Inferior Vena Caval Sphincter
Climate Change
I. Ecological Scale
A. Marine Mammals in Polar Regions
B. Marine Mammals in Temperate and Tropical Regions
II. Phenology
A. Migration Timing
Clymene Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Coloration
I. Terminology
II. Development
III. Sexual Dimorphism
IV. Geographic and Individual Variation
V. Function and Evolution
VI. Coloration as a Taxonomic Character
IX. Ephemeral and Anomalous Variation
Common Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Phylogeny
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Communication
I. Chemical Communication
II. Visual Communication
A. Cetacea
B. Pinnipedia
C. Sirenia
III. Tactile Communication
A. Cetacea
B. Pinnipedia
C. Sirenia
IV. Acoustic Communication
A. Nonvocal Communication
1. Cetacea
2. Pinnipedia
3. Sirenia
B. Vocal Communication
1. Mysticetes
2. Odontocetes
3. Pinnipedia
4. Sirenia
References
Conservation
I. What Is “Conservation”?
II. International Efforts to Conserve Marine Mammals
III. Regional and Bilateral Conservation Efforts
IV. National Conservation Efforts
V. Local and Individual Conservation Efforts
VI. Protected Areas
VII. Strategies to Enhance Survival and Reproduction
VIII. Reduction of Environmental Pollution (Chemical, Acoustic, and Biological)
IX. Reduction of Conflicts With Fisheries
X. Reduction of Disturbance and Direct Harm From Vessel Traffic
XI. Giving Economic Value to Living Wild Marine Mammals
XII. Global Prognosis for Marine Mammal Conservation
References
Crabeater Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Culture and Social Learning
Cuvier’s Beaked Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
D (239-280 pp.)
Dall’s Porpoise
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Delphinids, Overview
I. Introduction
II. Taxonomic Overview
III. Morphology
IV. Distribution and Habitat
V. Social Organization and Behavior
VI. Feeding
VII. Reproduction
Dental Morphology
I. Cetacea
A. Archaeocetes
B. Neoceti
II. Sirenia
III. Desmostylia
IV. Pinnipedia
Desmostylia
I. Introduction
II. Desmostylian Relationships, Origins, and Distribution
III. Anatomy and Mode of Life
IV. Diversity
Dialects
References
Diet
I. Methods to Determine
A. Stomach and Intestine Contents
B. Fecal Remains (Scats)
C. Fatty Acids
D. Stable Isotopes
E. Direct Observations
F. Calculating Proportions Consumed
G. Comparison of Diet Methods
II. What They Eat
A. Cetaceans—Baleen Whales (Mysticeti)
B. Cetaceans—Toothed Whales (Odontoceti)
C. Pinnipeds (Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses)
D. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris)
E. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus)
F. Sirenians
G. Comparisons Among Groups
References
Distribution
I. Distribution Patterns and Preferences
A. Cetaceans
B. Pinnipeds
C. Sirenians
D. Polar Bear and Sea Otter
II. Determinants of Marine Mammal Distribution
A. Demographic Factors
B. Evolutionary Factors
C. Ecological Factors
D. Habitat-Related Factors
E. Anthropogenic Factors
III. Studying Marine Mammal Distribution
Diving Behavior
I. Fur Seals and Sea Lions (Eared Seals Otariid Marine Carnivores)
II. Walrus (Odobenid Marine Carnivores)
III. True Seals (Phocid Marine Carnivores)
IV. Cetaceans
A. Odontocetes (Toothed Whales)
B. Mysticetes (Baleen Whales)
V. Other Marine Mammals
References
Diving Physiology
I. Introduction
II. Adaptations to Hypoxia
A. Oxygen Stores and Their Distribution
B. Cardiovascular Responses
C. Metabolic Responses
D. Anaerobic Metabolism
E. Aerobic Diving Limit
III. Adaptations to Pressure
References
Dolphins, Porpoises, and Monodontids, Evolution
Dugong
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Dusky Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
E (281-345 pp.)
Eared Seals
I. Classification
II. Morphology and Physiology
III. Distribution and Habitat
IV. Behavior and Ecology
V. Interactions With Humans
References
Earless Seals
I. Systematics
II. Distribution
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Echolocation
I. Sound Production Mechanism and Propagation in the Dolphin’s Head
II. Sound Reception and Auditory Capabilities
III. Sound Transmission and the Characteristics of Echolocation Signals
IV. Target Discrimination Capabilities
V. Echolocation Signals of Free-Swimming Dolphins
VI. Conclusions
Ecology
I. Conceptualizing and Understanding Ecological Interactions and Processes
A. The Nature of Species Interactions
B. Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Forcing
C. Direct Versus Indirect Effects
D. Alternate Stable States
II. Approaches to Understanding
III. Case Studies
A. Marine Otters
B. Sirenians
C. Pinnipeds
D. Cetaceans
IV. Density-Mediated Versus Trait-Mediated Effects
V. Future Directions
Elephant Seals
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Human Interactions
References
Embryology
I. Skull Shape
II. Feeding Apparatus
III. Hair and Skin
IV. Forelimbs
V. Hind Limbs
VI. Tail and Fluke
VII. Gestation and Growth
VIII. Uterus and Placenta
IX. Fetal Position and Birth
References
Endangered Species and Populations
I. Introduction
II. Why Do Marine Mammal Populations Become Endangered or Fail to Recover?
III. Recovery and Nonrecovery of Species and Populations: Lessons and Trends
IV. Improving the Recovery of Species and Populations
V. The Future of Endangered Species Recovery
Endocrine Systems
I. Introduction
II. Neuroendocrine Perception of Environmental Changes
III. Thyroid Hormones
IV. Substrate Metabolism
V. Adrenal Hormones and Stress
VI. Osmoregulation
VII. Diving
VIII. Reproduction
IX. Immune–Endocrine Interactions
X. Endocrine Disruption
XI. Conclusions
References
Energetics
I. Introduction
II. Energy Acquisition
III. Energy Expenditure
A. Maintenance Costs
B. Locomotion and Foraging Costs
C. Growth and Reproduction Costs
D. Field Metabolic Rates
E. Disturbance Costs
References
Entanglement of Whales in Fishing Gear
References
Epimeletic Behavior
Ethics
I. Marine Mammals and Humans: Obligations and Opportunities
II. The Moral Status of Marine Mammals
A. Who, Not What, Are Marine Mammals?
B. From Resources to Respect: Recognition of Personhood and Rights
C. Marine Mammals in Person and in Policy
III. Where Marine Mammals and Humans Meet
A. Direct Killing of Marine Mammals
B. Entertainment and Captive Public Display
C. Sociable Interactions in the Wild
D. Ethical Research Paradigms
IV. Emerging Ethics
References
Extinctions, Specific
I. Steller’s Sea Cow
II. West Indian Monk Seal
III. Japanese Sea Lion
IV. Baiji
V. Prospects for the Future
References
F (347-395 pp.)
False Killer Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior
Feeding Morphology
I. Functional Morphology
II. Cetacean Functional Feeding Morphology
A. Odontocetes
B. Mysticetes
III. Sirenian Functional Feeding Morphology
IV. Pinniped Functional Feeding Morphology
V. Sea Otter and Polar Bear Functional Feeding Morphology
Feeding Strategies and Tactics
I. Introduction
II. Finding Prey
A. Habitat Use
B. Migration
C. Searching and Diving
D. Prey Detection
III. Capturing and Consuming Prey
A. Stalking and Ambushing
B. Prey Herding and Manipulation
C. Prey Debilitation
D. Tool Use
E. Benthic Foraging
F. Batch Feeding
G. Ectoparasitism, Kleptoparasitism, Scavenging, and Cannibalism
H. Herbivory
I. Prey Preparation and Consumption
IV. Group Foraging
A. Cooperative Foraging, Food Sharing, and Cultivation
B. Optimal Group Size
V. Variation in Feeding Strategies and Tactics
A. Trade-Offs
B. Ontogenetic Variation
C. Interindividual Variation
D. Intraindividual Variation
Filter Feeding
I. Filter Feeding and the Marine Environment
II. Diet, Filter-Feeding Structures, and Prey Capture
A. Seals—Diet, Feeding Morphology, and Behavior
B. Mysticetes—Diet and Feeding Morphology
C. Mysticetes—Feeding Behavior
D. Mysticetes—Feeding Ecology
III. Summary
References
Fin Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Finless Porpoises
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Fisheries Interactions
I. Introduction
II. Biological Interactions
III. Operational Interactions: Foraging Benefits for Mammals
A. Commensal Interactions
B. Kleptoparasitism or Depredation
C. Mutualism
IV. Operational Interactions: Welfare and Conservation Impacts on Marine Mammals
V. Operational Interactions: Losses to Fisheries
VI. Summary
References
Folklore and Legends
Forelimb Anatomy
I. Cetaceans
II. Sirenians
III. Marine Carnivores
A. Pinnipeds
Franciscana Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
A. Fossil Record
B. Geographic Variation
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Fraser’s Dolphin
Lagenodelphis hosei
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
G (397-440 pp.)
Gastrointestinal Tract
I. Introduction
II. Pinnipeds, Polar Bears, and Sea Otters
III. Cetaceans
IV. Sirenia
Genetics and Genomics
I. Sex and Age in an Era of Nonlethal Sampling
II. Identification of Individuals and Their Close Relatives
III. Estimating Current and Past Abundance
IV. Population Genetic Structure and Units of Conservation
V. The Recent Application of Genomics to the Study of Marine Mammals
VI. Convergent Evolution Among Marine Mammal Lineages
VII. A Final Note of Caution
References
Genetics, Forensics
I. Introduction
II. Molecular Taxonomy and Identification of Cetacean Species
III. Web-Based Species Identification With www.DNA-surveillance
IV. Taxonomic Uncertainties and Species Identification
V. Monitoring of Whale Meat Markets
VI Individual Identification and a Diagnostic “DNA Register”
VII. Identification of Small Cetaceans and “Marine Bushmeat”
VIII. Conclusion
References
Genetics, Management
I. The “Conservation Unit”
A. The Evolutionarily Significant Unit
B. The Demographically Independent Population
II. Molecular Markers
III. Focusing on the Individual
A. Illegal Traffic and Trade
B. Other Uses of Individual-Oriented Genetic Information
C. The Hidden Power of Molecular Genetics
Geographic Variation
I. The Nature of Geographic Variation
II. Subspecies
III. Cetaceans
IV. Carnivores
V. Sirenians
References
Gray Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
Gray Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
A. Western North Pacific Population (Critically Endangered)
B. Eastern North Pacific Population
III. Ecology
A. Diet and Feeding
B. Predators and Parasites
IV. Behavior and Physiology
A. Social Organization
B. Sensory Perception
C. Swimming, Breathing, and Diving
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Group Behavior
I. Theory of Group-Living
A. Benefits and Costs of Group-Living
B. Female Social Behavior
II. Social Behavior of Marine Mammals
A. General Strategies
B. Foraging
C. Predation
D. Resource Defense
III. Conclusion
Guadalupe, Juan Fernández, and Galapagos fur seals
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
H (441-501 pp.)
Habitat Pressures
I. Physical Damage
II. Chemical Pollution
III. Competition With Fisheries
IV. Disturbance
V. Climate Change
References
Hair and Fur
I. Structure and Function
II. Molt
References
Harbor Porpoise
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Harbor Seal
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Harp Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Health
I. Individual Physical Examination
II. Measures of Population Health
Diagnostic Approach
Important and Emerging Conditions in Marine Mammals
III. Conclusion
References
Hearing
I. Acoustics
II. Hearing in Air
III. Bone Conduction Hearing
IV. Odontocete Cetaceans
V. Mysticete Cetaceans
VI. Sirenians
VII. Pinnipeds
VIII. Polar Bears and Sea Otters
IX. Evolution of Cetacean Hearing
References
Hindlimb Anatomy
I. Cetaceans
II. Sirenians
III. Pinnipeds
IV. Polar Bears and Sea Otters
References
History of Marine Mammal Research
References
Hooded Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
Hourglass Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
Humpback Dolphins
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Humpback Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Hunting
I. Hunting of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises
II. Pinnipeds
III. Sirenians
IV. Sea Otters and Polar Bears
V. Market (Commercial) Versus Subsistence (Household-Use) Hunting
Hybridism
I. Introduction
II. Evidence of Matings Between Marine Mammal Species
III. Reported Hybridizations in Captivity
IV. Reported Hybridizations in the Wild
V. Evolutionary Implications of Hybridization
References
I (503-529 pp.)
Identification Methods
I. Cetaceans
A. Natural Markings
B. Temporary Markings
C. Scarring and Branding
D. Attachment Tags
II. Pinnipeds
A. Natural Markings
B. Temporary Markings
C. Scarring and Branding
D. Attachment Tags
III. Sirenians
A. Natural Markings
B. Temporary Markings
C. Scarring and Branding
D. Attachment Tags
References
Indo-Pacific Beaked Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Intelligence
I. Brain Size and Characteristics
II. Learning
A. Language Studies
B. Inventive Dolphins
III. Behavioral Complexity in Nature
A. Carnivores and Sirenians
B. Baleen Whales
C. Toothed Whales
IV. Conclusions
References
International Whaling Commission
I. Historical Background
II. Establishment of the International Whaling Commission
III. The IWC Before 1972
IV. A Period of Change: 1972 to the “Moratorium”
V. The Commission Today
A. Management Issues
Inuit and Marine Mammals
I. Introduction
II. Precontact Whaling
III. Mysticetes
A. Bowhead Whale, agviq
B. Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus), agvigluaq
C. Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and Fin Whales (Balaenoptera physalus)
D. Minke Whale (B. acutorostrata)
IV. Odontocetes
A. Beluga Whale (Delphinapterus leucas), qilalugaq
B. Narwhal (Monodon monoceros), qilalugaq tuugaalik
V. Pinnipeds and Polar Bears
A. Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida), natchiq Bearded Seal, ugruk and Harp Seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus)
B. Walrus, aiviq
C. Polar Bear, nanuq
Irrawaddy Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
A. Vernacular Names
B. Taxonomic Relationships
C. External Appearance
D. Skeletal Characteristics
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
A. Threats
B. Conservation
References
K (531-543 pp.)
Killer Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior
A. Social Structure
B. Foraging Behavior
C. Vocalizations
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Krill and Other Plankton
I. Introduction
II. General Morphology and Life History of Krill
III. Swarming
IV. Recruitment Variability
V. Foraging Tactics of Baleen Whales and Crabeater Seals
VI. Marine Mammal Diets and Euphausiid Consumption by Ocean Basin
A. North Pacific
B. South Pacific
C. North Atlantic
D. Indian Ocean
E. Southern Ocean
F. Summary
VII. Anthropogenic Effects
References
L (545-554 pp.)
Language Learning and Cognitive Skills
I. Dolphin Cognitive Skills
II. Dolphins and Language
A. Natural Language?
B. Early Attempts at Teaching Language to Dolphins
C. Kewalo Basin Dolphin Studies of Language Comprehension
D. Conclusions
References
Leopard Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Locomotion, Terrestrial
I. Terrestrial Locomotion Evolution
II. Carnivore Terrestrial Locomotion
III. Pinniped Terrestrial Locomotion
IV. Cetacean and Sirenian Terrestrial Locomotion
References
M (555-626 pp.)
Management
I. Management Units
II. Methods of Marine Mammal Management
A. Traditions, Taboos, and Practices
B. Harvest Bans
C. Age/Sex Limitations on Harvests
D. Seasonal Area Closures
E. Restrictions on Methods and Fishing Gear
F. Quota-Based Restrictions
G. Market Monitoring and Trade Restrictions
H. Treatment of Wild and Captive Animals
I. Marine Sanctuaries
J. Pinniped Control Programs
K. Ecosystem Management
III. Trends in Marine Mammal Management
Manatees
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
A. West Indian Manatee, T. manatus
B. Amazonian Manatee, T. inunguis
C. African Manatee, T. senegalensis
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Functional Morphology
VI. Life History
VII. Interactions With Humans
References
Marine Parks, Zoos, and Aquariums
I. The History of Zoological Parks Worldwide
II. Connecting People to Wildlife
III. Care, Welfare, and Sustainability
IV. Basic and Applied Research
V. Future of Marine Parks, Zoos, and Aquariums
Marine Protected Areas
I. The Recent Growth and Development of Marine Protected Areas
II. Criteria and Process for Selecting MPAs for Marine Mammals
III. Designing MPAs for Marine Mammals
IV. Ecosystem-Based Management
V. The Legal Process for Setting up MPAs
VI. Management Plans, Monitoring, and Evaluating Effectiveness
VII. Networks of MPAs
VIII. High Seas MPAs
IX. Filling Gaps in the Protection of Marine Mammal Habitats
References
Mark-Recapture
I. Introduction
II. Capturing and Identifying Individuals
A. Photo-identification
B. Genetic Tagging
III. Movement Patterns
IV. Mark-Recapture Analysis to Estimate Survival Rates and Abundance
A. Survival Rates
B. Abundance
C. Assumptions
V. Birth/Fecundity Rates
References
Mass Mortalities
I. Diagnosis
II. Infectious Disease
III. Biotoxins
IV. Environmental Effects
V. Anthropogenic Effects
Mating Systems
I. Introduction to Mating Systems
II. Male Mating Strategies
III. Female Mating Strategies
IV. Taxonomic Descriptions
A. Pinnipeds
B. Cetaceans
C. Sirenians, Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris) and Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)
V. Mating System Studies and the Future
References
Melon-Headed Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Mesoplodon Beaked Whales
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Migration and Movement
Mimicry
References
Minke Whales
Balaenoptera acutorostrata and B. bonaerensis
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Molecular Ecology
I. Diversity Within Individuals
II. Diversity Within Populations
III. Population Genetics
IV. Beyond Populations
V. Summary
References
Monk Seals
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Musculature
I. Overview of Muscle Microanatomy
II. Axial Muscles
III. Appendicular Muscles
IV. Craniofacial and Craniocervical Muscles
Museums and Collections
References
N (627-648 pp.)
Narwhal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Neoceti
New Zealand Fur Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
New Zealand Sea Lion
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Noise
A. Marine Mammal Hearing
B. Effects of Noise on Marine Mammal Behavior
C. Effects of Noise on Marine Mammal Communication
D. Effects of Noise on Hearing and Other Systems
References
Northern Fur Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
O (649-671 pp.)
Ocean Environments
I. Surface Temperature, Salinity
II. Surface Currents and Winds
III. Vertical Structure
IV. Productivity
V. Ice
VI. Temporal Variability
VII. Effects on Life History and Function
VIII. Effects on Feeding
IX. Effects on Distribution and Migration
X. Effects of Climate Change
Odobenocetops
I. Descriptive Anatomy
II. Affinities
III. Functionnal Anatomy and Habits
A. Feeding Adaptations
Omura’s Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Osmoregulation
I. Water and Electrolyte Ingestion
II. Water and Electrolyte Output
III. Do Marine Mammals Drink Seawater?
IV. Relative Reductions in Water Loss
V. Water Balance During Reproduction
VI. Evolutionary Implications
Otters
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
P (673-792 pp.)
Pacific White-sided Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Pantropical Spotted Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Parasites
I. Parasite Diversity
A. Cetaceans
B. Sirenians
C. Pinnipeds
D. Sea Otter
E. Polar Bear
II. Patterns and Processes in Host–Parasite Associations
A. General Hypothesis on the Origin of Associations
B. Parasite Exchange in Ecological Scenarios
III. Effects and Applications
A. Parasitosis
B. Public Health
C. Natural Tags
References
Parental Behavior
I. Feeding, Lactation, and Patterns of Association
II. Protection and Predation
III. Mother–Offspring Recognition
IV. Maternal Influence on Offspring Behavioral Development
V. Parity
VI. Mother–Offspring Conflict and Weaning
VII. Association Postweaning
References
Pathology
I. Introduction
II. Sources of Information
III. Parasitism
IV. Neoplasia
V. Infectious Disease
VI. Chronic Diseases of Undetermined Cause
VII. Stress
VIII. Conclusions
References
Peale’s Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Pilot Whales
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Pinniped Ecology
I. Abundance
II. Distribution
III. Reproductive Ecology
A. Mating Systems
B. Lactation Strategies
IV. Foraging
A. Methods
B. Diet
C. Foraging and Diving Behavior
D. Spatial and Temporal Scales of Foraging
IV. Role of Pinnipeds in Aquatic Ecosystems
V. Conclusions
References
Pinniped Evolution
I. Pinniped Ancestry: Origin and Affinities
II. Divergence of Major Lineages
References
Pinniped Life History
I. Characteristics of Pinniped Life Histories
II. Methods for Examining Life Histories
III. Constraints on Life Histories
IV. Costs Versus Benefits of Reproduction
V. Age at First Reproduction
VI. Reproductive Rates
VII. Comparing Males and Females
References
Pinniped Physiology
I. Introduction
II. Fasting Physiology
A. Lipid Utilization and Protein Sparing
B. Glucose Metabolism
C. Hormonal Regulation of Fuel Use
D. Renal Physiology During Fasting
III. Lactation Physiology
IV. Oxidative Stress
References
Pinnipeds
I. Systematics and Distribution
A. Otariidae: Fur Seals and Sea Lions
B. Odobenidae: Walruses
C. Phocidae: Seals
II. Anatomy and Physiology
III. Behavior
References
Playful Behavior
I. Motor Imitations
II. Vocal Imitation
III. Examples of Play
A. The Mischievous Dusky Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus)
B. Creating a Bow Wave
C. Balancing Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus)
D. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Conspecific and Interspecific Play
E. The Darker Side of Play
Polar Bear
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Pollution
I. Legacy and New Substances of Concern
II. Factors to be Taken into Account in Assessing Pollution Impact
A. Biological Factors Affecting Variability in Pollutant Levels
B. Diet
C. Age and Sex
D. Nutritive Condition
E. Body Size
F. Body Composition
G. Analysis and Sampling
III. Impacts of Pollution on Marine Mammals
A. Impaired Reproduction
B. Disease
C. Direct Mortality
D. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
IV. Species Vulnerability
V. Developments in Spatial and Temporal Trends of Pollutants
VI. Marine Debris
VII. A Fundamental Approach to Address Pollution Impact on Marine Mammals
References
Popular Culture and Literature
I. Introduction
II. Background: Shaping Cultural Perceptions Prior to the 1950s
III. The 1950s: Out With the Old
IV. The 1960s and 1970s: In With the New
V. The 1980s and 1990s: Loving Marine Mammals Becomes an Industry
VI. Marine Mammals in the 21st Century: The Urban Whale and Domestic Dolphin
VII. International Perspectives
VIII. Conclusion
Population Dynamics
I. Rates of Population Increase
A. Population Growth of Long-Lived Animals
B. Measuring Population Growth
C. Taxonomic Differences
II. Extrinsic Factors Affecting Population Size
A. Environmental Variance
B. Disease and Natural Toxins
C. Competition
D. Predation
III. Density-Dependence
A. Compensation
B. Linear Versus Nonlinear Density-Dependence
C. Density-Dependence and Management
D. Allee Effect (Depensation)
References
Porpoises, Overview
I. Origins
II. Morphology
III. Ecology and Behavior
IV. Conservation
Predation on Marine Mammals
I. Introduction
II. Predation on Sirenians
III. Predation on Mustelids
IV. Predation on Pinnipeds
A. Polar Bears
B. Pinnipeds
V. Predation on Cetaceans
A. Blackfish
B. Sharks
C. Polar Bears
D. Killer Whales
E. Humans
References
Predator–Prey Relationships
I. Evolutionary Time Scales
II. Ecological Time Scales
III. Synthesis
Prey Consumption
I. Prey Contribution and Quality
II. Daily Requirements
III. From the Individual to the Population
IV. Spatiotemporal considerations
V. Future Considerations
References
Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Pygmy Killer Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior
V. Life History
Pygmy Right Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
R (793-840 pp)
Remoras
I. Remora Biology
II. Marine Mammal Hosts
III. Problems With Remora Identifications
References
Reproductive Anatomy
I. Male Anatomy
II. Female Anatomy
Reproductive Behavior
I. Introduction
II. Pinnipeds
A. Transition From Foraging to Breeding
B. Parental Behavior
C. Maternal Behavior
D. Mating Behavior
(i). Females
(ii). Males
E. Mating Habitats
F. Social Structure
G. The Transition to Foraging
III. Cetaceans
A. Transitioning From Nonbreeding to Breeding States
B. Mysticetes
C. Odontocetes
D. Parental Behavior
E. Maternal Behavior
F. Paternal Behavior
G. Mating Behavior
(i). Female Mating Behavior
(ii). Male Mating Behavior
IV. Other Marine Mammal Species
A. Sirenians
B. Polar Bears
C. Sea and Marine Otters
V. Reproductive Behavior in Changing Environments
References
Reproductive Physiology
I. Reproductive Physiology of Pinnipeds
A. General Reproduction
B. Female Reproduction
C. Male Reproduction
II. Reproductive Physiology of the Polar Bear
A. General Reproduction
B. Female Reproduction
C. Male Reproduction
III. Reproductive Physiology of Cetaceans
A. General Reproduction
B. Female Reproduction
C. Male Reproduction
Ribbon Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Right Whale Dolphins
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Right Whales
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Ringed Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Risso’s Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
A. Conservation
References
River Dolphins
I. Taxonomy and Distribution
II. Behavior and Ecology
III. Threats and Conservation Concerns
River Dolphins, Evolution
I. Platanistoidea
A. Squalodontidae
B. Prosqualodontidae
C. Waipatiidae
D. Allodelphinidae
E. Squalodelphinidae
F. Platanistidae
II. Nonplatanistoid River Dolphins
A. Lipotidae
B. Inioidea
III. Conclusions
Ross Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Rough-Toothed Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
S (841-982 pp.)
Scrimshaw
Sei Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions with Humans
Sensory Biology
I. Chemical Senses
II. Electrosense
III. Magnetosense
References
Sexual Dimorphism
I. Evolution of Sexual Dimorphism
II. Taxonomic Distribution
A. Baleen Whales
B. Toothed Whales
C. Pinnipeds
D. Sirenians, Sea Otters, and Polar Bears
IV. Sexual Dimorphism, Sexual Selection, and Marine-Mammal-Mating Systems
References
Shepherd’s Beaked Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
Signature Whistles
Sirenian Evolution
I. Sirenian Origins
II. Early History, Anatomy, and Mode of Life
III. Dugongidae
Sirenian Life History
I. Life History
A. Longevity
B. Age at Sexual Maturity
C. Parental Care
D. Growth and Development
E. Fecundity
Skeleton
I. Axial Skeleton
A. Vertebral Structures
B. Vertebral Column
C. Cervical Region
D. Thoracic Region
E. Sternum
F. Lumbar Region
G. Sacral Region
H. Caudal Region
I. Chevron Bones
II. Appendicular Skeleton
A. Pectoral Limb Complex
B. Pelvic Limb Complex
C. Sexual Dimorphism
Skull
I. Feeding
II. Bones and Bony Features
III. Joints and Foramina
IV. Cranial and Nasal Cavities
V. Telescoping in Cetaceans
References
Sociobiology
I. Sociobiological Inquiry
II. Grouping
A. Cetaceans
B. Pinnipeds
C. Sirenians, Sea Otters, Polar Bears
III. Parental Investment
A. Cetaceans
B. Pinnipeds
C. Sirenians, Sea Otters, Polar Bears
IV. Mating Systems
A. Cetaceans
B. Pinnipeds
C. Sirenians, Sea Otters, Polar Bears
Song
I. Characteristics
A. First Descriptions
B. Song Structure
C. Song Progression
D. Song Characteristics and Population Definition
II. Singing Behavior
A. Seasonality
B. A Male Communication
C. Interactions of Singers
III. Function
IV. Songs of Other Species
Sound
I. Fundamentals of Sound
II. Sound Production Mechanisms
A. Terrestrial Mammals
B. Mysticetes
C. Odontocetes
D. Sirenians, Pinnipeds, and Polar Bears
III. Characteristics of Vocalizations by Groups and Selected Species
A. Pinniped Sounds
Phocids
Otariids
Odobenids
B. Mysticete Sounds
C. Odontocete Sounds
Click Sounds
Pulsed Sounds
Whistles
Signature Whistles
D. Sounds of Sirenians and Other Groups
IV. Conclusions
References
Sound Paths, Cetaceans
I. Introduction
II. Odontocetes
III. Mysticetes
References
South American Fur Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
South American Sea Lion
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Species and Subspecies
I. What Are Species and Subspecies?
II. The Process of Speciation
III. Methods for Delineating Species and Subspecies
IV. Species and Subspecies in the Future
References
Spectacled Porpoise
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Sperm and Beaked Whales, Evolution
I. Sperm Whales, Fossil Record, and Phylogeny
II. Beaked Whales, Fossil Record, and Phylogeny
III. Paleoecology and Evolutionary Trends
References
Sperm Whale
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
A. Vocalizations
B. Movement
C. Social Structure
D. Behavioral Modes
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Spinner Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Spotted Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Movements
III. Ecology
A. Habitat
B. Diet and Feeding
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
Steller Sea Lion
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions with Humans
Steller’s Sea Cow
Hydrodamalis gigas
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution
III. Ecology
IV. Life History
V. Interactions With Humans
Stock Assessment
I. Methods
II. Stock Assessments by the International Whaling Commission
III. US MMPA Stock Assessments
IV. Assessment of Extinction Risk
V. Other Marine Mammal Stock Assessments
VI. Stock Identification
VII. Recent and Future Developments in Marine Mammal Stock Assessments
References
Stock Identity
I. Importance of Stock Identity
II. Definition of Stock
III. Stock Identification Approaches
IV. Analytical Techniques
V. Study Design and Sampling
VI. Other Complications
References
Strandings
I. Introduction
II. Types of Stranding Events
A. Single Strandings
B. Mass Strandings
C. Mass Mortalities or Unusual Mortality Events (UMEs)
D. Out of Habitat Situations
III. Stranding Response
A. The Value of Stranding Response
B. Stranding Response Objectives
C. Basics of Stranding Response
D. Human Interaction Evaluations
E. Live Animal Response
F. Dead Animal Response
G. Large Whale Strandings
References
Streamlining
I. Drag
II. Body Shape
III. Drag Reduction Mechanisms
Striped Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Subantarctic Fur Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Surveys
I. Vessel Surveys
II. Aircraft Surveys
III. Land-Based Surveys
IV. Advanced Sampling Technologies
References
Sustainability
I. Introduction
II. Management Questions, Empirical Answers
III. Accounting for Complexity
References
Susu and Bhulan
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
A. Vernacular Names
B. External Appearance
C. Taxonomic Relationships
D. Skeletal and Internal Morphology
E. Internal Anatomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
A. Threats
B. Conservation
Swimming
I. Hydrodynamics and Body Streamlining
II. Kinematics
III. Energetics
IV. Swimming Speeds and Behavior
V. Field Measurements and the Special Case of Swimming at Depth
Systematics
I. Basic Tenets of Phylogenetic Systematics
II. Phylogeny Reconstruction
III. Phylogenetic Classification
IV. Uses of a Phylogeny
References
T (983-1030 pp.)
Territorial Behavior
I. Territoriality in Marine Mammals
II. Territoriality, Mating Strategies, and Mate Selection
III. Obtaining, Defending, and Advertising Territories
IV. Costs of Territoriality
V. Development of Territorial Behavior
VI. Territorial Functions
VII. Spatial Aspects of Territoriality
VIII. Temporal Aspects of Territoriality
Thermoregulation
I. Physics of Heat
II. What Is “Thermoregulation”?
III. Thermoregulation in Marine Mammals
A. Heat Conservation and Generation
B. Blubber
C. Fur
D. Vascular Adaptations
E. Behavioral Thermoregulation
IV. Current Issues and New Research
A. Climate Change
B. New Research Tools
IV. Summary
Thorax and Abdomen, Anatomy
I. Mammalian Postcranial Landmarks
A. The Diaphragm
B. Regions and Structures Cranial to the Diaphragm
C. Structures Caudal to the Diaphragm
II. Overview
Tool Use
I. Explaining the Rarity
II. Examples of Marine Mammal Tool Use
III. Conclusion
References
Toothed Whales (Odontoceti)
I. Diagnostic Characters and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Range
III. External Appearance
IV. Diet and Feeding Strategies
V. Sound Production and Reception
VI. Social Organization and Culture
VII. Mating System, Reproduction, and Life History
VIII. Human Interaction and Conservation Status
Tourism
I. The Birth of Whale Watching
II. Science and Education as Part of Marine Mammal Tourism
III. Growth of Commercial Marine Mammal Tourism
IV. Growing Pains and the Institution of Guidelines and Regulations
V. Tourism Impacts on Marine Mammals and Marine Mammal Populations?
VI. Tourism and Conservation: Making Marine Mammal Tourism Sustainable
References
Training
I. Introduction
II. Animal Learning and Behavior
A. Observational Learning
B. Classical Conditioning
C. Operant Conditioning
III. An Emphasis on Positive Reinforcement
IV. Training, In General
A. Training Pinnipeds
B. Evolving Applications and Advanced Concepts
C. Calf Survival and Reproduction
D. Reintroduction Programs
V. Animal Acclimation
VI. Enrichment and Variety
VII. Research in Managed Care
VIII. Behavior Medicine
IX. Animal Welfare
X. Conclusion
References
Tucuxi and Guiana Dolphins
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Tuna-Dolphin Issue
I. The Tuna-Dolphin Association
II. Purse-Seining for Tuna
III. Actions to Reduce the Dolphin Bycatch
IV. Status of the Dolphin Populations
References
V (1031-1044 pp.)
Vaquita
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Vision
I. Visual Abilities of Marine Mammals
A. Cetaceans
B. Pinnipeds
C. Other Marine Mammals
II. Eye Anatomy and Optics
A. Cetaceans
B. Pinnipeds
C. Other Marine Mammals
III. Eye Movements
IV. The Retina and Optic Nerve
A. Features of the Retina in Cetaceans
B. Features of the Retina in Pinnipeds
C. Optic Nerve Structure in Cetaceans
D. Optic Nerve Structure in Pinnipeds
E. The Retina of Other Marine Mammals
V. Retinal Topography and Visual Field Organization
A. Retinal Topography in Cetaceans
B. Retinal Topography in Pinnipeds
C. Retinal Topography in Other Marine Mammals
VI. Conclusions
References
W (1045-1079 pp.)
Walrus
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Weddell Seal
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
Whale Lice
I. Origin and Diversification of Whale Lice
II. Life History
III. Whales as Mobile Islands
Whaling, Aboriginal and Western Traditional
I. Humans Meet Whales
II. Early Icelandic Whaling
III. Basque Whaling
IV. Aboriginal Whaling
V. Western Traditional Whaling
A. Bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) Whaling
B. The Beginning of Sperm Whaling
C. Whaleships and Whaleboats
D. Killing and Processing the Whale
References
Whaling, Illegal and Pirate
I. Illegal Whaling
A. Southern Hemisphere
B. North Pacific
II. Illegal Whaling by Other Countries
III. Pirate Whaling
References
Whaling, Japanese
I. Subsistence Whaling
II. Traditional Commercial Whaling
III. Modern Coastal Whaling
IV. Pelagic Whaling in the Antarctic
A. Before World War II
B. Postwar Operations
V. Pelagic Whaling in the North Pacific
A. Before World War II
B. Postwar, off the Bonin Islands
C. Northern North Pacific
VI. Whaling Under Foreign Jurisdiction
VII. Small-Type Whaling
VIII. Dolphin and Porpoise Fisheries
IX. Trap Net Fishery
X. Scientific Whaling
Whaling, Modern
I. The Emergence of Modern Whaling
II. Advent of the International Whaling Commission
III. Illegal Whaling
IV. The Decline of Commercial Whaling
V. Impact of Whaling on the Stocks of Whales
VI. An Uncertain Future and the Rise of Scientific Whaling
Whiskers
I. Pinniped whiskers
A. General
B. Follicle-Sinus-Complex
C. Active Touch
D. Hydrodynamics
E. Other Functions
II. Whiskers of Other Marine Mammals
References
White-beaked Dolphin
I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
A. Taxonomy
B. Description
II. Distribution and Abundance
III. Ecology
IV. Behavior and Physiology
V. Life History
VI. Interactions With Humans
References
Biographies
Glossary
Index
Inside Back Cover
Back Cover