Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics

✍ Scribed by T. Chakraborty (editor)

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 4473
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics, Second Edition, Five Volume Set is an authoritative and comprehensive expansion of the classic 2005 work, delivering over 300 brand new or fully updated articles focused on core theoretical discoveries and modern applications. Meticulously planned and structured into approximately 60 sections, the book allows the user to quickly gain a solid footing in the key theoretical aspects of quantum mechanics, mechanics, electrodynamics, relativity, statistical mechanics and the elementary particles that form the core physics background for the field. The work also presents useful coverage of experimental techniques, materials processing, and materials systems, as well as applied topics.

Novel topics, including topology in condensed matter, graphene, integer and fractional quantum Hall effect, and other nanoscale phenomena in optics, in semiconductors, and in superconductors are presented in unusual depth. The encyclopedia solves the problem that students and interdisciplinary researchers often have of finding clear, accessible foundational information to answer their initial questions on a topic.

• Presents an authoritative, modern presentation of advances in graphene, topology, quantum effects, optics, semiconductors and superconductors, and many more areas
• Meticulously organized into approximately 300 articles and 60 sub-sections, offering a thematically balanced and navigable portrait of an unusually diverse interdisciplinary field
• Contains logical and consistent chapter templating and writing styles adopted throughout, including use of next generation pedagogic features

✦ Table of Contents

Front Cover
About the pagination of this eBook
Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics
Copyright
Editor-in-chief biography
Editorial Advisory Board
Introduction
References
List of Contributors for Volume 1
Contents of Volume 1
Quantum Hall effect and modern-day metrology
Introduction
International system of units (SI units)
Universality of quantized Hall resistance
Is the quantized Hall resistance identical to h/e2?
Integration of electrical quantum units into the official SI system
Conclusion
References
The pulse-driven AC Josephson voltage standard of Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)
Introduction
Fundamental elements of the JAWS
JAWS technology
JAWS Setup
Optical pulse drive and on-chip power divider
Applications
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Field theoretic aspects of condensed matter physics: An overview
Introduction
Early years: Feynman diagrams and correlation functions
Critical phenomena
Classical critical phenomena
Landau-Ginzburg theory
The renormalization group
Quantum criticality
Dynamic scaling
The Ising model in a transverse field
Quantum antiferromagnets and nonlinear sigma models
Topological excitations
Topological excitations: Vortices and magnetic monopoles
Nonlinear sigma models and antiferromagnetic quantum spin chains
Topology and open integer-spin chains
Duality in Ising models
Duality in the 2D Ising model
The 3D duality: Z2 gauge theory
Bosonization
Dirac fermions in one space dimensions
Chiral symmetry and chiral symmetry breaking
The chiral anomaly
Bosonization, anomalies, and duality
Fractional charge
Solitons in one dimensions
Polyacetylene
Fractionally charged solitons
Fractional statistics
Basics of fractional statistics
What is a topological field theory
Chern-Simons gauge theory
BF gauge theory
Quantization of Abelian Chern-Simons gauge theory
Vacuum degeneracy a torus
Fractional statistics and braids
Topological phases of matter
Topological insulators
Three-dimensional Z2 topological insulators
Chern-Simons gauge theory and the fractional quantum Hall effect
Point contact tunneling and QH chiral edge states
Particle-vortex dualities in 2+1 dimensions
Electromagnetic duality
Particle-vortex duality in 2+1 dimensions
Bosonization in 2+1 dimensions
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Majorana fermions in condensed-matter physics
Abbreviations
Introduction
Acknowledgment
References
Majorana fermions in Kitaev spin liquids
Introduction
Majorana fermions in Kitaev model
Fingerprint of Majorana fermions
Experimental realizations
Conclusion
References
Fundamental and emergent particles in condensed matter and high-energy physics
Introduction
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
Goldstone and Higgs modes
Nambu-Goldstone modes
Higgs modes
Higgs mechanism
Example: Higgs mechanism
Topological phases and emergent quasiparticles
Dark matter detection
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Phase transitions, spontaneous symmetry breaking, and Goldstone´s theorem
Introduction to spontaneous symmetry breaking and the Higgs mechanism
The phase transition in the λphi43-Euclidean field theory in three dimensions
Proof of the Goldstone theorem for Euclidean field theories
The example of λphi4-theory
Phase transitions and symmetry breaking in classical and quantum lattice systems
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment
References
Higgs and Nambu-Goldstone modes in condensed matter physics
Introduction
Higgs mode in superconductors
Higgs modes in atomic Fermi gases
Higgs and Nambu-Goldstone modes in other systems
Conclusion
References
Higgs and Goldstone modes in cold atom systems
Introduction
Collective modes in Bose condensates
Order parameter for the superfluid Fermi gas
Gaussian fluctuations of the pair field
Anderson-Bogoliubov mode in superfluid Fermi gases
Amplitude mode in superfluid Fermi gases
Conclusion
References
Higgs and Goldstone modes in crystalline solids
Introduction
Overview and outline of the chapter
Notation
Symmetry and invariance
Symmetry of states
Symmetry of the physical laws
Gauging translations in crystal lattice: Acoustic phonons as gauge bosons
Emerging of Goldstone modes
Pseudo-relativistic metric
Gauging spatial translations
Peculiarities of spatial translations
Yang-Mills theory of acoustic phonons in crystal
Optical phonons remain still undescribed
Spontaneous symmetry breaking and order parameter
Ginzburg-Landau approach and SSB
SSB in crystalline solids
Experimental evidences of SSB in structural phase transitions in metals
Conclusion
References
Quantum mechanics: Foundations
Introduction
Quantum statistics
Aharonov-Bohm effect
Limits on the validity of quantum mechanics
Further reading
Aharonov-Bohm and Aharonov-Casher effects in condensed matter physics: A brief review
Introduction
Aharonov-Bohm effect
Periodicity in the Aharonov-Bohm phase
Gauge invariance
Examples in condensed matter physics
Aharonov-Casher effect
Aharonov-Casher effect and non-Abelian gauge transformations
Examples in condensed matter physics
Analogy of Aharonov-Bohm effect in cold atoms physics
Magnetic monopoles
Dirac quantization and phase factors
Tight-binding spectra on spherical graphs: Avoiding the Dirac string
Relation to Aharonov-Casher effect
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Quantum computation of complex systems
Introduction
Quantum logic
Quantum algorithms
Quantum simulation of physical systems
Simulating complex dynamics on actual quantum hardware
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Quantum information processing with superconducting circuits: A perspective
Introduction
Overview
Quantum processor systems: Hardware and software
Quantum algorithms
Quantum supremacy
Performance metrics
Applications
Quantum approximate optimization algorithm-QAOA
Variational quantum eigensolver-VQE
Simulating physical systems on engineered quantum platforms
Key issues
Noise and loss of information-A common experience
Fighting imperfections and noise in quantum processors
Scaling up for practical quantum advantage
Useful NISQ digital quantum advantage-Mission impossible?
Future directions
Improved and alternative superconducting qubits
Hybrid distributed computing
Continuous variables-Computing with resonators
Biochemistry and life science-Drivers of quantum computing?
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Braids, motions and topological quantum computing
Introduction
Objectives
In the article we will:
The braid group
Braids and knots in physics: An incomplete history
Topological quantum computation
The origins of topological quantum computation
Modeling topological phases with categories
The role of the braid group in TQC
Detecting non-abelian anyons via braiding
Braiding universality
Measurement assisted universality
Distinguishing anyons and anyon systems via braiding
Beyond braids
Conclusion
Appendix on categorical notions
Acknowledgment
References
Fibonacci anyon based topological quantum computer
Objectives
Introduction
Overview
Conventional two-level quantum computer
Fibonacci topological quantum computer
Key issues
Leakage error
Quantum compilation error
Hardware error sources
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Fractional quantum Hall effect in semiconductor systems
Notations and acronyms
Introduction
Phenomenology of the FQH effect
Incompressible fluids
Broken symmetry phases
Laughlin states
Laughlin's wave function
Charged excitations
Magnetoroton excitation
Edge excitations
Parent Hamiltonian and Haldane pseudopotentials
Hierarchy and composite fermions
Haldane-Halperin hierarchy
Composite fermions
Half-filled Landau level
Gapless composite fermion Fermi liquid in the half-filled Landau level
nu=5/2 state
Anti-Pfaffian
Non-Abelian states
Non-Abelian anyons and topological quantum computation
nu=12/5 state
Other non-Abelian states
Multicomponent fractional quantum Hall effect
Spinful systems
Bilayer systems
Recent developments
Parton theory
Effective field theory
Entanglement-based approaches
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
From the integer to the fractional quantum hall effect in graphene
Introduction
Landau levels and the integer quantum Hall effect in graphene
Electrons in a single Landau level
Correlated electronic phases in partially filled Landau levels in graphene
Spin-valley quantum Hall ferromagnets
Fractional quantum Hall states
Electron crystals
Conclusion
References
Fractional quantum Hall effect at the filling factor nu=5/2
Notations and acronyms
Introduction
Theoretical background
Theory of composite fermions
Paired quantum Hall states
Pfaffian (Moore-Read) state
Anti-Pfaffian state
PH-Pfaffian state
Unified description: Kitaev's 16-fold way
Bulk collective excitations
Overview of numerical results
Numerical methods and geometries
Spin polarization
Excitation gaps
Evidence for pairing
Topological properties
Competing phases and Landau level mixing
Unexpected experimental results and the PH-Pfaffian
Summary of numerical results
Early experiments and evidence for/against non-Abelian states
Transport and optics: Bulk energy gap
Surface acoustic waves, geometric resonance transport, light scattering, and Knight shift: Spin polarization
Tunneling with QPCs and SETs: Quasiparticle charge and edge exponents
Noise in QPCs: Upstream neutral mode
Interferometry: Quasiparticle charge and braiding
Summary of early experimental findings
Recent surprises and puzzles
Experimental results
Possible interpretations
Recent and ongoing developments
Summary of recent developments
Future directions
Noise measurements
Local power measurement in multi-terminal thermal conductance experiment
Other interferometry experiments
Bulk probes: Polarized Raman scattering and thermal power
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Interacting Dirac fermions and the rise of Pfaffians in graphene
Introduction
Fractional quantum Hall effect
Pfaffian function
Monolayer and bilayer graphene in a strong magnetic field
Graphene monolayer
Bilayer graphene
Pfaffian states in graphene
Graphene monolayer
Bilayer graphene
Finding the Pfaffians
Conclusion
References
On the stability of Laughlin´s fractional quantum hall phase
Introduction: Phenomenology of the FQHE
Experimental facts
Theoretical road-map
Basic theory
The many-body quantum Hamiltonian
Quantum Hall plateaux
Landau levels
The integer quantum Hall effect
The fractional quantum Hall effect
Restriction to the lowest Landau level
Killing the interaction's singularity
Laughlin quasi-holes
Stability of the Laughlin phase
Mathematical results and conjectures
Haldane pseudo-potentials
The spectral gap conjecture
Stability of the Laughlin phase
Incompressibility estimates
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Fractional statistics in low-dimensional systems
Introduction
Fractional statistics in 2D
Fractional statistics in 1D
Anyons and the fractional quantum Hall effect
Conclusion
References
Anyon collisions and fractional statistics
Introduction
Fermion and boson collisions
The collider with random sources
Random collisions of electrons
The anyon collider: Elements of theory
The anyon collider: Experimental results
Discussion of the results
Conclusion
References
Fractional statistics, gauge invariance and anomalies in condensed matter physics
Introduction: Gauge theory of states of matter
Effective actions and their properties
The chiral anomaly
A first application: Conduction quantization in quantum wires
What is fractional or braid statistics?
The 2D quantum Hall effect
The electrodynamics of 2D incompressible electron gases-Anomalous chiral edge currents
Classification of abelian´´ Hall fluids Induced Chern-Simons actions, dualities, and 2D chiral photonic wave guides Chiral spin currents in planar topological insulators Anomalous current commutators and the chiral magnetic effect A possible manifestation of the chiral magnetic effect in cosmology A five-dimensional cousin of the Hall effect and axion electrodynamics A generalized chiral magnetic effect 3D Topological insulators andaxions´´
Weyl semimetals
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Properties of 2D anyon gas
Introduction
Brief historic overview
The ideal anyon gas
Quantum statistics
The braid group
Kinetic energy
Statistics transmutation in 2D
Exchange vs. exclusion
Toward density functionals for anyons
Local exclusion principle and degeneracy pressure for the ideal anyon gas
Some states of particular interest
The nonideal anyon gas
The extended anyon gas
Almost-bosonic anyons
Almost-fermionic anyons
Magnetic TF theory
Point-interacting anyons
Other interactions and fields
Lowest Landau level (LLL) anyons
The non-abelian anyon gas
Burau
Ising
Fibonacci
Emergence of the anyon gas
The quantum Hall setting
Impurities in the plane and polarons
Impurities on the sphere and angulons
Other emergent models for anyons
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Abelian and non-abelian anyons
Introduction
Quantum statistics
Braiding and fusing of anyons
Anyons obey braid group statistics
Anyon composites or fusion rules
Non-abelian anyons
Generalities
Kitaev model in one dimension
Statistics of the Majorana modes
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Statistical anyons
Introduction
Statistical´´ anyons Statistical anyon wavefunction Statistical anyons in the second quantization Statistical anyons and generalized exclusion statistics Equilibrium thermodynamics of statistical anyons 1D Statistical anyons 2D Statistical anyons 2D FES anyons Thermodynamic equivalence Conclusion Summary Impacts and future directions References Recent developments in fractional Chern insulators Introduction Microscopic model Tight-binding formalism Effective continuum model Conditions of the existence of FCIs Requirements for the band Requirements for the interaction Particle-hole asymmetry Numerical diagnosis of FCIs Basic identifications Competing phases FCIs in twisted bilayer graphene Microscopic model of TBG Numerical evidence of FCIs Numerical evidence of competing phases FCIs in Bloch bands with high Chern numbers Experimental observation of FCIs Experiment in Bernal-stacked bilayer graphene Experiment in twisted bilayer graphene FCIs in cold-atom systems Conclusion Acknowledgment References Quantum Hall states in higher Landau levels Glossary Introduction The magnetic Hamiltonian and its Eigenfunctions The Landau levels The two oscillators Complex notation Eigenfunctions Factorization The lowest Landau level as a Bargmann space of holomorphic functions Unitary maps between Landau levels Many body states and -particle densities Mapping Hamiltonians to the LLL Another proof of Theorem 5.1 Coherent state representations Coherent states Integral kernels Recap of the different expressions for the unitary maps Some special states Laughlin states Filling factor nu=5/2 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Quantum Hall effect Abbreviations Introduction Hall effect Two-dimensional charge carrier system Hall effect on two-dimensional charge carrier system-Quantum Hall effect Theoretical models for the quantum Hall effect Integer quantum Hall effect The single-particle energy spectrum-Landau levels Dissipationless current flow Compressible and incompressible regions within a two-dimensional electron system Current distribution in real samples Role of metal contacts Breakdown Localization Fractional quantum Hall effect Conclusion References The network model and the integer quantum Hall effect Introduction Anderson localization and the integer quantum hall effect The network model Generalizations of the network model Conclusion References Photonic quantum Hall effects Introduction Overview Historical background Theoretical and experimental approaches Key issues Are photonic quantum Hall effects genuinely robust? Potential device applications Making photonic quantum Hall effects quantum Conclusion References The Anomalous Hall Effect Introduction Overview Key issues A very brief picture of ferromagnetism Spin-orbit coupling Topological materials Charge transport description of the anomalous Hall effect Anomalous Hall effects in topological materials Conclusion Acknowledgment References Monolayer and bilayer graphene Introduction Graphene History Fabrication Properties Applications Electrical properties of monolayer graphene Crystal structure Band structure and tight-binding model Dirac effective-mass model, pseudospin and chirality Symmetries Berry phase π Trigonal warping and other tight-binding parameters Ambipolar electric field effect Klein tunneling Integer quantum Hall effect Semiclassical quantization and Berry phase Integer quantum Hall effect Electronic properties of Bernal-stacked bilayer graphene Crystal structure Electronic band structure and tight-binding model Effective-mass model, pseudospin and chirality Symmetries Berry phase 2π Trigonal warping and other tight-binding parameters Band gap tunable with an electric field Integer quantum Hall effect Electronic properties of AA-stacked bilayer graphene Crystal structure Electronic band structure and tight-binding model Conclusion References Relevant website Quantum spin Hall effect Introduction and overview Topological insulator and quantum spin Hall effect Z2 characterization of topological insulators Many-body Chern number matrix The fractional quantum spin Hall effect Fractionalized spin Hall transport in frustrated spin systems Conclusion References Quantum hall and synthetic magnetic-field effects in ultra-cold atomic systems Introduction Synthetic magnetic fields Integer quantum Hall effect IQH in cold atoms Extensions Fractional quantum hall effect in cold atoms Dynamical synthetic gauge fields Dynamical vector potentials and Peierls phases Lattice gauge theories Conclusion References Quantum Hall phases of cold Bose gases Key objectives Notations and acronyms Introduction The basic Hamiltonian Confinement to the lowest Landau level The yrast curve Passage to the Laughlin state Adding an anharmonic potential Fully correlated states The N-particle density as a Gibbs measure Conclusion Acknowledgment References Valley Currents in Graphene Introduction Overview Key issues Conclusion Acknowledgment References Bulk-edge correspondence Introduction Quantum Hall effects Laughlin argument and edge states Role of edge states TKNN integer Bulk-edge correspondence Quantum Hall effect to Chern insulators Universality of the bulk-edge correspondence Short-range entangled states, symmetry protection and edge states Conclusion References Berry phase and geometrical observables Introduction Bloch geometry Class I observables Generalities Polarization Polarization as a topological observable Magnetoelectric response and theaxion´´
Class II observables
Generalities
Time-reversal odd observables
Time-reversal even observables
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Topological properties of Dirac and Weyl semimetals
Introduction
Magnetic Weyl semimetal
Chiral anomaly
Topological magnetotransport phenomena in semimetals
Conclusion
Further reading
Topological insulators
Introduction
Historical perspective
Theory of topological insulators
Model Hamiltonian of A 3D topological insulator
Representative topological insulator materials
Topological crystalline insulators
Higher-order topological insulators
Experimental confirmation of TIs
Syntheses of TI materials
Interesting phenomena derived from TIs
Topological superconductivity and Majorana zero modes
Quantum anomalous Hall effect
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Bloch electrons in a magnetic field
Introduction
Low magnetic fields
Semiclassical methods and magnetic oscillations
Strong magnetic fields in 2D
Semiclassical methods at strong magnetic field
References
The Ten Martini problem
Introduction
The Harper and Almost Mathieu models
Numerical solution
Transfer matrix
Matrix formulation
Gap opening
A toolbox for solving the Ten Martini problem
Rational approximation
Spectral continuity
Transfer matrices and gaps
Solving the Ten Martini problem
The Diophantine regime
The Liouville regime
Conclusion
References
Hofstadter butterfly in graphene
Introduction
Graphene superlattices
Hofstadter butterfly in graphene/hBN superlattice
Hofstadter butterfly in twisted bilayer graphene
Conclusion
References
Tight-binding method in electronic structure
Introduction
NRL tight-binding method
Technical procedure
Ground-state behavior and phase stability
Elastic constants
Vacancies
Surfaces
Stacking faults
Phonons
Point defects
Finite temperature properties from molecular dynamics
Multicomponent systems
One- and two-dimensional structures
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Electronic Structure Calculations: Plane-Wave Methods
Introduction
The Standard Model of Solids
Pseudopotentials
Total Energy Calculations and Structural Properties
Superconductors, Optical Properties, and Novel Materials
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Further Reading
Plasmons in monolayer and bilayer graphene
Introduction
Plasmons in monolayer graphene
Plasmons in bilayer graphene
Plasmon in biased bilayer graphene
Conclusion
References
Electron gas (theory)
Notations and Acronyms
Introduction
Ideal Fermi gas and Fermi liquid theory
Weakly interacting electron gas: Exchange effects
Electron correlations: Calculation of the ground state energy
Electron gas and density functional theory
Static screening
Dynamical screening and plasmons
Wigner crystallization
Electron gas in reduced dimensionality
Two-dimensional electron gas in graphene
Two-dimensional electron gas at high magnetic field
Transport coefficients
Spin-orbit interaction
Conclusion
References
The Jahn-Teller effects
Introduction
Four modification of the JTEs. Adiabatic potentials vs observables
JTEs in local properties of solids. Examples
Ultrasonic exploration
Qubits for spintronics in quantum information devices
Cooperative properties in crystals. Ferroelectricity, multiferroicity, and orientational polarization
Cooperative PJTE, ferroelectricity
Multiferroicity
Orientational polarization of solids
Manipulation of solids and 2D systems by influencing their JTEs parameters
Inducing the JTE in crystal sublattices
Planarization of puckered two-dimensional systems
Conclusion
References
Fermi surface measurements
Introduction
Quantum oscillations
Experimental realization
Angle-resolved photoemission
Experimental realization
Angle-dependent magnetoresistance oscillations
Types of oscillation
Experimental realization
The electron momentum distribution-Compton scattering and positron annihilation
Compton scattering
Positron annihilation
Spin-resolved measurements
Strengths and weaknesses of the various techniques
Sensitivity to correlations
Sample purity
Temperature
Dimensionality
k-space resolution
Bulk sensitivity
Other techniques
Anomalous skin effect
Cyclotron resonance
Kohn anomalies, RKKY and Friedel oscillations
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Pseudopotential methods
Introduction
Early pseudopotentials
The Phillips-Kleinman cancellation theorem
Model potentials
The empirical pseudopotential method
First principles pseudopotentials using density-functional theory
Conclusion
References
Effective masses
Introduction
Electron dynamics
Band curvature and types of charge carriers
Parabolic band approximation
Effective mass theory
Heterostructures
Density of states and carriers concentration
Two-dimensional materials
Measurement methods
Conclusion
References
Electronic structure: Impurity and defect states in insulators
Introduction
Theoretical methods for defect electronic structure
Coupling of electrons and lattice deformation
Self-trapping and localization
Defects in disordered materials
Surfaces and interfaces
Conclusion
References
Density functional theory
Introduction
Basic formalism
Born-Oppenheimer approximation
Hohenberg-Kohn theorem and Kohn-Sham equation
Extensions
Approximate exchange-correlation functionals
LDA, GGA, and orbital dependent functionals
Notes on constructing approximate exchange-correlation functionals
Electronic structure
Single-particle spectrum
Response function
Kohn-Sham states in practice
Nuclear dynamics
Forces acting on nuclei
Interatomic force constants
Recent topics
Practical guide
Program packages
Reproducibility
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
The sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo simulations
Introduction
Configurational weight in classical Monte Carlo simulation
Configurational weight in quantum Monte Carlo simulation
World-line Monte Carlo
Stochastic series expansion
Determinant Quantum Monte Carlo
What is the sign problem?
Sign problem is basis-dependent
Sign problem is related to Pauli exclusion principle
Sign problem is related to geometric frustration
Sign problem is related to Aharonov-Anandan phase
How to cure, ease and make use of the sign problem
Symmetry
Split orthogonal group, Majorana representation and Majorana positivity
Sign bound theory
Lefschetz thimble
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Quantum transport and electron-electron interactions in one dimension
Introduction
The mesoscopic regime
Experimental realization of a (quasi-)1D system and quantization of conductance
Interaction effects in 1D
Conclusion
Further reading
References
Quantum physics in one dimension
Introduction
Fundamental concepts for 1D systems
1D or not 1D
Collective excitations and 1D physics
Methods
Complications
Mott transition
Effect of disorder or quasiperiodic potentials
Coupled chains
Key issues and future directions
Conclusion
References
Further reading
The Hubbard model and the Mott-Hubbard transition
Introduction
Overview
The Mott-Hubbard metal-insulator transition
Dynamical mean-field theory
Key issues
The Mott-Hubbard transition in DMFT
Multiorbital Hubbard model
Role of the Hund's coupling
Conclusion
References
Electron quantum optics: A testbed for the Luttinger paradigma
Introduction
Wave-guides, beam-splitters and on-demand single-electron sources
Hanbury-Brown-Twiss and Hong-Ou-Mandel interferometry with electrons
Luttinger liquid description of interacting quantum Hall edge channels
Effects of interaction in the Hong-Ou-Mandel profile: The Leviton case
Crystallization of Levitons in the fractional quantum Hall regime
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Theoretical approaches to liquid helium
Introduction
Early approaches
Microscopic theories
Quantum Monte Carlo methods
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
The dynamics of quantum fluids
The helium liquids
4He in 3D
3He in 3D
4He in reduced dimensions
3He in reduced dimensions
Conclusion
References
Quantum fluids of light
Introduction
Microcavity devices: Non-equilibrium physics
Propagating geometries: Conservative dynamics
Strongly correlated fluids and topological states of photonic matter
Conclusion
References
Floquet states
Introduction
Floquet theory
Examples
High-frequency expansion
Periodically driven open quantum systems
Experimental observations
Conclusion
References
Pump-probe spectroscopy for non-equilibrium condensed matter
Introduction
Time-resolved THz-TDS
Time-resolved ARPES
Intense THz pulse-induced non-equilibrium phenomena
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Nonequilibirum physics, numerical methods
Introduction
Wave-function based methods
Exact diagonalization
Time-dependent DMRG and iTEBD
Density-functional based methods
Time-dependent density functional theory
Functionals derived from DFT+U
Functionals derived from DMFT
Green's function based methods
Lattice simulations
Hartree approximation
Generalized Kadanoff-Baym ansatz
Nonequilibrium dynamical mean field theory
Variants of nonequilibrium DMFT
References
1/f noise in quantum nanoscience
Introduction
Theoretical overview
1/f noise in nanoscience
Noise in quantum circuits
1/f Noise in quantum-coherent nanodevices
Artificial atoms
Quantum sensing
Conclusion
References
Back Cover
Volume-2
Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics
Copyright
Editor-in-chief biography
Editorial Advisory Board
Introduction
References
List of Contributors for Volume 2
Contents of Volume 2
History of magnetism
Early history
From navigation to industry
Units
Fundamental understanding
Magnetic phenomenology and materials
Modern developments
Conclusion
References
Disordered magnetic systems
Introduction
Models
Spin glasses
Re-entrant spin glasses
The random field Ising model
Amorphous magnetic systems
Magnetic materials
Conclusion
References
Magnetic Order
Introduction
Further Reading
Paramagnetism
Further Reading
Diamagnetism
Further reading
Ferromagnetism
Introduction
The Molecular Field Approach to Ferromagnetism
Magnetostatic Energy and Demagnetizing Field
Magnetic Anisotropy
Magnetic Domains
The Magnetization Curve
Further Reading
Localized and Itinerant Magnetism
Introduction
Localized-Electron Model
Itinerant-Electron Model
Further Reading
Magnetic Domains
Introduction
The Physical Basis of Magnetic Domains
Domain Walls
An Example of Magnetic Domains: Stripes
Acknowledgments
Appendix A: Magnetostatic Energy of a Localized Distribution M(x)
Appendix B: The Equilibrium Stripe Width
Further reading
Magnetic Interactions
Introduction
Crystalline Electric Field Interactions
Origin of Long-Range Magnetic Order - Exchange Interactions
Further Reading
Magnetic Materials and Applications
Introduction
Soft Magnetic Materials
Hard Magnetic Materials
Giant Magnetostrictive Materials
Manganites
Further Reading
Magnetocaloric Effect
Introduction
Discovery and First Application of the Magnetocaloric Effect
Fundamentals of the Magnetocaloric Effect
Magnetic Order and the Magnetocaloric Effect
Active Magnetic Regenerator Cycle and Near-Room-Temperature Magnetic Refrigeration
The Future of the Magnetocaloric Effect
Acknowledgment
Further Reading
Manganites
Introduction
Structure
Doping: Phase Diagram
Main Interactions: Hamiltonian
Metallic Phase: CMR Phenomenon
Insulating State
Percolative Transition
Further Reading
Magnetic oxides
Abbreviations
Introduction
Isolated magnetic ions in a crystal
Intersite effects
Exchange interaction
Frustrated magnetism, spin liquids, spin ice
Various orderings: Magnetic, charge, orbital, etc.
Magnetoelectrics and multiferroics
Insulator-metal transitions; metallic oxides
Superconductivity in oxides
Various useful properties and applications of magnetic oxides
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Magnetic nanostructures
Introduction
Overview
Conclusion
References
Further reading
The spin Hall effect
Introduction
Phenomenology and basic concepts
Experiments
Theory
Conclusion
Notes on further readings
Acknowledgment
References
The spin-transfer torque effect
Introduction
Spin-transfer mechanism
Equation of motion
Microscopic theory
Spin-orbit torque
Antiferromagnets and other systems
Conclusion
References
Quantum magnonics
Introduction
Spin waves and magnons
Quantum states of magnons
Hybrid magnonic platforms
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Spintronic materials
Abbreviation
Introduction
Historical overview
Key materials: Issues and research directions
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant websites
The spin galvanic effect
Introduction
Phenomenological description
Mechanisms of the spin-galvanic effect
Optically induced spin-galvanic effect
Spin-galvanic effect in transport experiments
Current induced spin polarization
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Spin-orbit coupling in solids
Introduction: Pauli SO coupling
Group theory of SO-coupled systems
Mechanisms of SO coupling in solids
Optical spin orientation
Spin precession and spin relaxation
SO coupling and band structure of solids
Conclusion
References
Spin-orbit interaction based spintronics
Introduction
Origin of spin-orbit interaction in semiconductors
Gate controlled Rashba SOI
Spin relaxation and its suppression for long spin coherence
Spin generation and detection using SOI
Spin manipulation by Aharonov-Casher spin interference
Spin manipulations by SOI-based ESR
Conclusion
References
Spintronics in 2D graphene-based van der Waals heterostructures
Abbreviations
Introduction
Graphene and van der Waals heterostructures
Relativistic spin-orbit coupled transport phenomena
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Optical orientation of spins in semiconductors
Introduction: Historical background
Overview of the subject
Band structure of gallium arsenide
Spin interactions
Photo-generation of carriers and luminescence
Optical spin orientation and detection
Spin relaxation
Hanle effect
Interconnections between spin and charge
Conclusion
References
Raman spectroscopy of graphene and related materials
Introduction
Brief overview of light scattering processes
Raman scattering process
Raman spectroscopy of graphene and graphene layers
Key issues
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Quantum devices in graphene
Introduction
One-dimensional systems in graphene
Quantum dots in graphene
Pauli blockade in graphene double quantum dots
Spin lifetimes in graphene quantum dots
Prospects of graphene qubits
Acknowledgment
References
Surfaces and Interfaces, Electronic Structure of
Introduction
Surface reconstruction and relaxation
Electronic surface states
Examples of reconstruction of relevant semiconductor surfaces
Interfaces
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Graphene, electronic properties and topological properties
Introduction
Electronic state of graphene
Topological properties of graphene
Graphene nanoribbons and edge states
Charge polarization and Zak phase
Energy spectrum and wave functions: Graphene nanoribbons
Electronic states of carbon nanotubes
Conclusion
References
Twisted bilayer graphene
Introduction
Moiré pattern and moiré Brillouin zone
Effective continuum model
Band structure
Superconductivity and correlated phenomena
Magneto spectra and quantum hall effect
Conclusion
References
Graphene, transport
Introduction
Overview
Electronic structures of graphene
Topological properties
Carrier scattering in graphene devices
Ballistic transport and electron optics
Valley Hall transport in the presence of charged impurities
Nonlocal transport and edge transport
Hydrodynamic transport
Conclusion
References
Further reading
van der Waals heterostructures
Introduction
Overview
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Dirac materials beyond graphene
Introduction
Overview on Dirac materials beyond graphene
Key issues on elemental 2D Dirac materials beyond graphene
Conclusion
References
Quantum confinement in Dirac-like nanostructures
Introduction
Klein tunneling
Confinement in two-dimensions
Maxwell's fish-eye lens and bound states
Experiments
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Theory of edge states in graphene-like systems
Introduction
Theory of quantum states in 2D honeycomb lattices
Calculation methods for edge states in graphene-like systems
Edge states in gapless graphene
Edge states in topological graphene
Importance of edge states
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
An introduction to the theory of spin glasses
Introduction
Analytical methods for spin glasses
Spin glasses in three dimensions
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Further reading
Spin glass experiments
Introduction
The spin-glass phase
Slow dynamics and aging in spin glasses
Aging, rejuvenation and memory effects
A correlation length for spin-glass order
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Ferroic glasses
Introduction to ferroic glasses
Origin of ferroic glasses and theoretical models
Signatures of a ferroic glass or a ferroic glass transition
Novel properties and potential applications of ferroic glasses
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Semiconductors, general properties
Introduction: Insulators and semiconductors
Effective mass, electrons, and holes
Mobilities
Doping
Current rectification by Schottky diodes and p-n junctions
Heterojunctions and field-effect transistors
Important semiconducting materials
Optical properties and their applications
LED mechanism
Conclusion
Further reading
Semiconductors: Exciton theory
Introduction and basic ideas
Binding of excitons
Interactions between excitons
Optical properties
Conclusion
References
Polarons in condensed matter
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Semiconductors: Spin-density waves
Introduction
Fermi surface nesting and spin-density wave formation
Microscopic theory
Basic static properties
Collective excitations: Phasons
Collective excitations: Magnons
Field-induced spin-density waves
Conclusion
References
Electrons and holes
Introduction
Electron and hole pockets
Donors and acceptors
Free carrier density
Carrier mobility and electrical conductivity
Electron-hole complexes
Conclusion
References
Electron-phonon coupling and polarons in low-dimensional structures
Introduction
Overview
Key issues (current debates regarding the topic)
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Electronic states of elemental semiconductors
Keypoints
Introduction
Crystal structure and symmetry
Energy band calculations
Band structures of Si, Ge and α-tin
Comparison with experimental data
Direct gap elemental semiconductors
Conclusion
References
Semiconductors: Isotope effects in solids
Introduction
Atomic mass-related properties
Spin-related properties
Neutron transmutation doping
Conclusion
References
Polaritons
Introduction
Polaritons in bulk
Surface polaritons
Polaritons in nanostructures with reduced dimensionality
Cavity polaritons
Dark-state polaritons in atomic gases
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Semiconductor Heterojunctions, Electronic Properties of
Introduction
Electronic Properties: Band Alignments
Measuring Band Offsets
Predicting Band Offsets
Band Offset Trends
Band Offset Engineering
Localized Interface States
Semiconductor Heterostructures and Spintronics
Further Reading
Semiconductors, Impurity and Defect States in
Introduction
Structural and Electrical Properties of Impurities and Crystal Defects
Theory of the Electronic States of the Shallow Impurities
Experimental Determination of the Shallow Energy Levels
Theory of the Electronic States of the Deep Impurities (or Defects)
Experimental Determination of the Deep Energy Levels
Further Reading
Semiconductor Nanostructures
Introduction
Physical Principles of Self-Organized Growth
Semiconductor Nanoislands
Semiconductor Nanowires
Hybrid Systems - Combination of Lithography and Self-Organized Growth
Further Reading
Epitaxy
Introduction
Substrate and lattice matching
Modes of film growth
Material characterization
Epitaxy techniques
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Epitaxy (classical MBE)
Introduction
Epitaxy in technology
Nucleation and epitaxial growth modes
Strain in epitaxy
Self-assembly of nanostructures
In situ growth monitoring
Conclusion
References
Superconductivity: Critical currents
Introduction
Elementary pinning mechanisms
Single-vortex and collective pinning by point defects
Pinning and current blocking by extended defects
Global critical currents of superconductors
Conclusion
References
High-temperature superconductors
Introduction
Overview
Crystal structures
Phase diagram
Superconducting properties
Critical temperature Tc
Coherence length xi
Penetration depth λ
Critical fields
Pairing symmetry
Energy gap
Type-II superconductivity
Vortex structure
Irreversibility field
Critical currents and flux pinning
Flux creep
Melting of the vortex lattice
Mixed-state phase diagram
Normal-state properties
Experimental methods
Magnesium diboride (MgB2)
Iron-based superconductor
Thin films
Bulk materials
Tapes and wires
Coated conductors
Conclusion
References
Phase diagrams of high-temperature superconductors
Introduction
Overview
Key issues
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Superconductors, hydrogen-based
Introduction
Superconductivity and high pressure
Synthesis of superconducting hydrides
Near room-temperature superconductivity in hydrides
Future prospects
Conclusion
References
Unconventional superconductivity
References
Superconducting density of states from scanning tunneling microscopy
Introduction
Overview
Key issues
Summary and future directions
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Josephson junctions
Introduction
The coupling between macroscopic quantum systems and the equations of the Josephson effect
Properties of a Josephson junction and imprints of macroscopic quantum phenomena
Emerging trends: From qubits to hybrid JJs
Conclusion
References
Superconductivity: Electronic mechanisms
Introduction
Superconductivity due to electron-electron interaction
Modern studies-Applications to lattice systems
Superconductivity at strong coupling
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Electrodynamics of superconductors
Introduction
Meissner state
Flux quantization
Total current
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Superconductivity: BCS theory
Introduction
BCS theory
Novel superconductors
Summary and outlook
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Quantum fluctuations in superconducting nanowires
Introduction
Superconducting fluctuations
Quantum phase slips
Quantum phase transition
Phase-charge duality
Superconducting´´ regime: Dissipative transport and noiseInsulating´´ regime: Localization of Cooper pairs
Conclusion
References
Superconductor-ferromagnet hybrid structures
Introduction
Metallic S/F structures
Odd-frequency triplet superconductivity in S/F structures
Magnetic proximity effect
Non-equilibrium properties of S/F structures
Conclusion
References
Superconductivity: Ginzburg-Landau theory and vortex lattice
Introduction
Ginzburg-Landau theory
Critical fields
Vortex lattice
London theory
Vortices near surfaces and in films
Elasticity of the vortex lattice
Conclusion
References
Nanodimensional superconducting quantum interference devices
Introduction
Overview
Key issues
Conclusion
References
Perspective in the twistronics of high-temperature superconductors
Introduction
Van der Waals nature of high-temperature superconductors and their chemical complexity
Twistronics of Bi2Sr2Can-1CunO4+2n+x
Introducing twisted high-temperature superconductors in quantum circuits
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Critical current fluctuations in Josephson junctions
Introduction
Phase dynamics in the underdamped regime
Moderately damped regime
The very high critical current density regime
Conclusion
References
Fast dynamics of vortices in superconductors
Introduction
Flux-flow instability models
Pinning effects on the flux-flow instability
From global to local instability models
Fast vortex dynamics under a microwave ac stimulus
Future directions
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Non-Abelian anyons and non-Abelian vortices in topological superconductors
Introduction
Non-Abelian anyons
Non-Abelian anyons in topological SCs
Non-Abelian vortex anyons
3P2 Topological SFs
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Topological superconductors
Introduction
Overview
Key issues
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Superinsulation
Introduction
Gauge theories of planar superconductors
The quantum phases in the vicinity of the SIT
The nature of the superinsulator
Oblique superinsulators in 3D
The role of disorder
Conclusion
References
Back Cover
Volume-3
Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics
Copyright
Editor-in-chief biography
Editorial Advisory Board
Introduction
References
List of Contributors for Volume 3
Contents of Volume 3
Superfluidity
Introduction
Occurrence
Microscopic origin
Hydrodynamics
Quantization of circulation
Rotating superfluid and vortex lines
Phase slip, Josephson effect and critical velocity
Conclusion
References
BEC-BCS crossover in ultracold atomic gases and neutron stars
Introduction
Overview of BEC-BCS crossover physics
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Superconductivity and superfluidity in neutron stars
Introduction
Overview
Selected key issues
Conclusion
References
BEC-BCS crossover, condensed matter experiments
Introduction
Density-controlled BCS-BEC crossover
New materials
Conclusion
References
Excitonic superfluidity in electron-hole bilayer systems
Introduction
Theory of electron-hole superfluidity
Systems
Future systems
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Spin superfluidity
Introduction
Concept of superfluidity
Spin superfluidity in ferromagnets
Spin superfluidity in antiferromagnets
Superfluid spin transport without spin conservation law
Long-distance superfluid spin transport
Experiments on detection of spin superfluidity
Conclusion
References
Bose-Einstein condensation
Introduction
How to reach BEC in dilute atomic gases
Imaging the new macroscopic quantum state
Role of interactions
Fermi gases
Coherence and superfluidity
Quantum mixtures of ultracold atomic gases
Further directions
Conclusion
References
Universality of Bose-Einstein condensation and quenched formation dynamics
Introduction
Universality during phase transition crossing: The Kibble-Zurek scaling law
Universality during phase-ordering dynamics
Selected further considerations
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Interacting Bose-condensed gases
Key objectives
Introduction
Noninteracting Bose gases
Weak repulsive contact interactions
Unitary contact interactions
Attractive contact interactions and dipolar interactions
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Cold-atom systems as condensed matter physics emulation
Introduction
Key issues
Overview
Optical lattice minimum
Ultracold Fermions as Fermi-Hubbard-Model emulation
Cold atom realization of dissipative Hubbard model as open quantum system emulation
Cold atom realization of Thouless pump as topological physics emulation
Two-orbital cold atom system as quantum transport emulation
Non-standard optical lattice system as novel energy-band emulation
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Ionic and mixed conductivity in condensed phases
Introduction: Hopping process
Charge carrier concentrations in pure compounds and dilute bulk
Doping effects
High charge carrier concentrations-Interactions
Boundary layers (Heterogeneous doping)
Partial equilibrium-Bridge between high-temperature and low-temperature situation
Chemical diffusion in mixed conductors and battery storage
Ion transport in biology
Conclusion
References
Electronic structure of liquids
Introduction
Experimental and theoretical methods
Metallic liquids
Electron-ion correlations
Liquid semiconductors and insulators
Conclusion
References
Supercooled liquids
Introduction
Overview of metastable states: From supercooled liquid to glass
Dynamics of supercooled liquids
Supercooled water
Conclusion
Further reading
Glasses
Introduction
What is a glass?
How are glasses made?
Glass structure
Defects
Nonsilicate glass-forming systems
Crystal growth and phase separation
Phase separation
Glass formation
Viscosity
Processing
Transformation range effects
Thermal properties
Mechanical behavior
Optical properties
Diffusion and electrical behavior
Conclusion
Further reading
Disordered solids and glasses, electronic structure of
Introduction
Nature of disorder
Effects of disorder on the electronic structure
The electronic density of states
The electronic wavefunction
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Acoustics: Physical principles and applications to condensed matter physics
Introduction
Basic acoustic theory
Acoustic theory for fluids
Acoustic theory for solids and piezoelectrics
Application of acoustics to liquids
Application of acoustics to solids
Another application of acoustics
Conclusion
References
Numerical methods for localization
Introduction
Exact diagonalization
Quasi 1D methods
Renormalization and decimation methods
Energy-level statistics
Wavefunction statistics and multi-fractal analysis
Finite-size scaling
Localization and many-body interactions
Machine learning
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Disordered electron liquid with interactions: Theoretical aspects
Introduction: Fermi-liquid in the presence of disorder
Beyond Fermi-liquid theory: Non-linear sigma model and scale-dependent theory of the disordered electron liquid
Scaling theory of the metal-insulator transition in d=2+; role of the parameter z
Tunneling density of states
The MIT in a two-dimensional system
Thermal conductivity
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Basics of simulations and carrier localization effects in semiconductor materials
Introduction to basics of simulations and carrier localization effects in semiconductor materials
Conclusion
References
Conductivity, electrical
Introduction
Measurements
Theoretical background
Experimental temperature and impurity-concentration dependence
Pressure
Size effects (mean free path)
Some related phenomena outside the purview of this chapter
Further reading
Coulomb blockade
Notations and acronyms
Introduction
Charge quantization and charging energy
Single electron box
Single electron transistor
Coulomb oscillations and staircase
Quantum effects
Co-tunneling
Applications
Conclusion
References
Conductivity, thermal
Definition
Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity
Kinetic theory of heat carriers
Thermal transport in insulating crystals
The case of glasses
Thermal conductivity of metals and the Wiedemann-Franz law
Superconductivity and heat transport
Magnetic excitations as heat carriers
Thermal magnetoresistivity and the Righi-Leduc effect
Measuring thermal conductivity
Further reading
Transport properties: Mass transport
Introduction
Transport in the presence of a gradient
Brownian motion
Conclusion
References
Ferroelectricity
Introduction
Probing ferroelectricity
Landau-Ginzburg-Devonshire framework
Displacive vs order-disorder limits
Dynamics
Domains, domain walls and ferroelectric textures
Ferroelectricity in liquid crystals and incommensurate ferroelectrics
Improper ferroelectricity
Multiferroics
Ferroelectricity beyond the Landau paradigm
Conclusion
References
Planar quantum dots: Theoretical approaches
Introduction
Confinement models and the energy spectra
Quantum dot in a magnetic field: Landau levels vs the Fock-Darwin states
Electron-electron interactions in QDs
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Quantum dots: Optical properties
Introduction
Quantum confinement effect
Optical absorption
Photoluminescence
Effects of shells and impurities
Optoelectronic and biomedical applications
Conclusion
References
The physics of quantum dots
Introduction
Overview
Key issues
Conclusion
References
Self-organized semiconductor nanostructures (quantum dots, quantum rings and their arrays)
Introduction
Growth of self-organized semiconductor nanostructures
Controlling ordering on an array of quantum dots
Ordered self-assembled quantum ring arrays
Conclusion
References
Optical properties in rolled-up structures
Introduction
Optical resonances in rolled-up tubular structures
Split axial modes in 3D microtube cavities
Rolled-up microtubes as optically active and passive devices
Mode responses with weak external perturbations
Mode splitting and non-Hermitian photonics
Optoplasmonic hybridization in metal/dielectric rolled-up structures
Spin-orbit coupling in rolled-up cavities
Rolled-up metamaterials
Conclusion
References
Nanostructured superconductors
Introduction
Nanofabrication techniques
Properties of nanopatterned superconductors
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Kondo effects in quantum dots: Theory
Introduction
Formulations for the quantum dot
Anderson model for the Kondo problem
Coulomb peaks to Kondo plateau
Conclusion
References
Kondo effects in quantum dots: Experiment
Introduction
Overview
Transport through a Kondo-correlated quantum dot and universal scaling
Phase shift through a spin 1/2 Kondo-correlated quantum dot
Spatial extension of the Kondo cloud
Varieties of the Kondo effect in quantum dots
Non-equilibrium Kondo effect and two-particle scattering
Multi-channel Kondo effect
Kondo effect with superconductivity
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Spin textures in quantum dots and quantum rings
Introduction
Models
Index characterizing the topology of the spin texture
Spin textures in quantum dots
Spin textures in quantum rings
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Quantum rings: Electronic properties
Introduction
Radial potential
Description of the model
Electronic states
Magnetization
Persistent current
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Aharonov-Bohm effect in self-assembled InAs/GaAs Quantum Rings: Fabrication, formation mechanism and optical characterization
Introduction
Growth of InAs on GaAs. Wetting layer, quantum dots and quantum rings
Aharonov-Bohm effect in Quantum Rings
Conclusion
References
Superstripes landscape in perovskites high Tc superconductors
Introduction
Oxygen order in cuprates systems
Charge density waves and lattice defects
Conclusion
References
Additive nanofabrication using focused ion and electron beams
Introduction
Additive nano-manufacturing using FIBID and FEBID
Direct-writing of superconducting nanostructures
Applications to superconducting devices
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Microstucture and macrostructure
Introduction
Single phase microstructures
Duplex microstructures
Conclusion
References
Structures: Orientation texture
Introduction
Crystallographic orientation
Texture measurement techniques
Mathematical constructs
Examples
Other texture related entities
Materials properties and modelling
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Nanostructures, Electronic Structure of
Introduction
Theory for the Electronic Structure at the Nanoscale
Approximations to the Electronic Structure Problem
The Kohn-Sham Equation
Computational Approaches for Nanostructures
Calculated Electronic Levels in Nanostructures
Further Reading
THz light and manipulations of matter
Introduction
Perspective: From optical to THz control over matter
THz sources
THz light-matter interaction and experimental tools
THz control over matter
Conclusion
References
The importance of full-scale experiments for the study of seismic metamaterials
Introduction
Seismic wave amplification and seismic site effects
Elasticity hypothesis for soils and analog approaches
Real case study of a full-scale structured ground
Defining a periodic soil model
Emergence of seismic metamaterial in earthquake engineering
Main classification of seismic metamaterial
In situ measurement: The key solution for understanding complex phenomena involved with seismic metamaterials
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Relevant websites
Quantum devices of reduced dimensionality
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Thermoelectric energy conversion devices
Introduction
The thermoelectric figure of merit
Optimizing the Seebeck coefficient
Semiconductor thermoelements
Reducing the lattice conductivity
Thermoelectric materials
A limit on the figure of merit
Thermoelectric modules
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Geometry matters: Gamete transport using magnetic microrobots
Introduction
Physical principles of microrobots motion at low Reynolds numbers
Optimization of microrobots efficiency
Optimization of microrobot biocompatibility and their immunological response
Gamete/zygote transport
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Memory devices-Non-volatile memories
Introduction
Non-volatile memory classification
Read-only memory
Electrically programmable read only-memory
Electrically erasable and programmable read-only memory
Flash EEPROM
Non-volatile random-access memories
In-memory computing
Conclusion
References
Memory devices - Volatile memories
Introduction
Memory classification
Volatile memories
Conclusion
References
Residual stress and strain evaluation across the scales
Introduction
Eigenstrain theory
Stress and strain multi-scaling
Statistical considerations
Live vs residual strains and stresses Experimental techniquesRich tomography of strain and stress
Influence of residual stress on structural integrity
Conclusion
References
Terahertz nondestructive evaluation of additively manufactured and multilayered structures
Introduction
Additive manufacturing
Multilayer paint stacks
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Excitons in nanoscale semiconductor structures
Introduction
Spatial confinement of carriers in nanoscale semiconductor structures
Optical properties of spherical nanocrystals
Optical properties of anisotropic semiconductor nanostructures
Effect of dielectric confinement on electron-hole energy spectra
Two dimensional excitons in nanoplatelets
One dimensional excitons in nanorods and nanowires
Photoluminescence of excitons in nanoscale semiconductor structures
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Bose-Einstein Condensation of Excitons in a bulk semiconductor
Introduction
Excitons in cuprous oxide
Early experiments
Collision-induced loss
Excitonic Lyman spectroscopy
Experiments at sub-Kelvin temperatures
Conclusion
References
Nonlocal optical response of nanostructures
Introduction
Scheme of microscopic response
Cavity effect
Examples of observed phenomena
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Optical properties of dielectrics and semiconductors
Introduction
Electromagnetic waves in solids
Optical reflection and transmission
Optical absorption
The tensor nature of the permittivity
Coulomb interaction effects
Photoluminescence
Nonlinear optics
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Polarizability and its generalization
Abbreviations
Traditional aspects
Generalization of polarizability
Conclusion
References
Ultrafast spectroscopy of correlated materials
Introduction
Methods
Ultrafast magnetism
Ultrafast dynamics in ferrimagnets
Ultrafast dynamics in antiferromagnets
Ultrafast dynamics in ferroelectrics
Ultrafast dynamics in magnetoelectrics and multiferroics
Ultrafast phono-magnetism
Ultrafast charge dynamics in superconductors and Mott insulators
Theoretical and computational approaches in ultrafast dynamics of correlated materials
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Excitons in crystals
Introduction
Overview of excitonic physics
Key issues and trending topics
Emerging trends and future directions
Conclusion
References
Optical properties of surface enhanced Raman scattering
Introduction
The origin of the enhancement of Raman intensities
Flat metal surface: Raman enhancement and surface selection rules
Electromagnetic enhancement due to surface plasmons and surface electromagnetic waves: Flat and roughed surfaces
Electromagnetic enhancement due to metal particles
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Photonic Bandgap Materials, Electronic States of
Introduction
Photonic Band Structure: General Properties
Theoretical Methods
Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystals
Two-Dimensional Photonic Crystals
Photonic Crystal Slabs
Defect States
Measuring the Photonic Band Structure
Further Reading
Integrated Circuits
Introduction
IC Materials
IC Technology
Processing Techniques
Physics of Integrated Circuits
Applications
Further Reading
Semiconductor Devices
Introduction
Junction Diodes
Bipolar Transistors
Field Effect Transistors
Memories
Photodetectors and Photodiodes
Solar Cells
Light Emitting Diodes
Laser Diodes
Wide Bandgap Materials
Further Reading
Semiconductor Lasers
Introduction
Population Inversion and Gain in Semiconductors
Semiconductor Heterostructures
Semiconductor Heterostructure Material Systems
Stripe Laser Diodes
Waveguiding in Laser Diodes, Effective Refractive Index, and Confinement Factor
Output Power versus Current Characteristic
Emission Spectrum and Beam Properties
Dynamic Properties and Noise
Single-Frequency Semiconductor Lasers
Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Semiconductor Lasers
Further Reading
Transistors
Introduction
Bipolar and Hetero-Bipolar Transistors
Field Effect Transistors: MISFET, MESFET, and HEMT
Backgated Structures
In-Plane-Gate Transistor
Single-Electron Transistor
Further Reading
Silicon, History of
Further Reading
Local field effects
Introduction
Induced field
Macroscopic fields
Dielectric response
Exchange and correlation
Photoemission from layered crystals
Nonlocal dielectric response
Further application
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Dielectric function
Introduction
Definition and general properties of the dielectric susceptibility and permittivity
Kramers-Kronig relations
Sum rule
Fluctuation - Dissipation theorem
Polaritons
Physical mechanisms and models of dielectric dispersion
Dielectric response of homogeneous materials
Effective dielectric function of inhomogeneous materials
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Mechanical properties: Fatigue
Introduction
Mechanisms of fatigue
Fatigue crack propagation
Empirical approaches
Variable-amplitude fatigue
LEFM approaches
Fatigue crack growth laws
Fatigue fracture modes
The short crack problem
Applications of data science and machine learning to fatigue
Overview of fatigue of complex concentrated alloys
Overview of fatigue of additively manufactured metals/alloys
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Mechanical Properties: Elastic Behavior
Introduction
Defining Elastic Constant
Measuring Elastic Constants
The Fundamental Nature of Elastic Constants
Extremes of Elasticity: Hyperelasticity
Further Reading
Mechanical Properties: Plastic Behavior
Deformation Fundamentals
Deformation Microstructure
Hardening Behavior
Texture
Softening: Recovery and Recrystallization
Modeling
Applications
Further Reading
Mechanical Properties: Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals
Introduction
Low-Temperature Dislocation-Based Strengthening Mechanisms
Low-Temperature Continuum-Level Strengthening
Limitations of Strengthening Mechanisms due to Thermal Activation
Further Reading
Back Cover
Volume-4
Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics
Copyright
Editor-in-chief biography
Editorial Advisory Board
Introduction
References
List of Contributors for Volume 4
Contents of Volume 4
Low-energy electron microscopy
Introduction
Electron-specimen interaction
Instrumentation
Applications
Conclusion
References
Mössbauer spectroscopy
Introduction
The nucleus and nuclear radiation
From the effect to spectroscopy
Hyperfine interactions
Synchrotron based methods
eMS - Emission Mössbauer spectroscopy
Applications
Conclusion
References
Photoelectron spectromicroscopy
Spectromicroscopy
The development of photoelectron spectromicroscopy
Two approaches to photoelectron spectromicroscopy
Practical implementation: Photon-focusing approach
Practical implementation: Electron-optics approach
Selected examples and performances
Resolution and sensitivity
Recent developments
Conclusion
Further reading
Scanning electron microscopy
Introduction
SEM basic principles
Electron optical figures of merit
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment
References
Scanning probe microscopy
Introduction
Principles of SPM
Scanning tunneling microscopy
Atomic force microscopy
Other SPMs
Conclusion
References
Microscopy: Transmission electron microscopy
Introduction
Electron optics of the microscope: STEM vs. TEM, reciprocity
Principles of image formation
The TEM as a nano-laboratory
Future directions
Conclusion
References
Electron ptychography
Introduction
Ptychography algorithms
Optical configuration
Recent applications
Recent advances in technical development
Conclusion: Multidimensional ptychography
References
Momentum-resolved scanning transmission electron microscopy
Introduction
Multidimensionality in STEM
Momentum-resolved STEM
Terminology
A momentum-resolved STEM example
First-moment STEM
Mapping electrical properties
Angle-resolved STEM
Impact of inelastic scattering
Conclusion
Prospects
Acknowledgment
References
Confocal optical sectioning microscopy
Introduction
Principle of confocal optical microscopy
Confocal laser scanning microscopy
Nipkow spinning disc confocal microscopy
Limits of optical resolution
Model materials for confocal imaging
Quantitative image processing for confocal microscopy
Applications in condensed matter physics
Conclusion
Further reading
Cyclotron resonance in metals, with a focus on quasiparticle scattering rates
Introduction
Landau quantization: A brief description
Cyclotron resonance in elemental metals and simple metallic alloys
Layered metals and degenerate semiconductor systems
Many-body effects I: Systems with two interacting carrier populations
Many-body effects II: Which effective mass does cyclotron resonance measure?
Effects related to cyclotron resonance
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Cyclotron resonance: Semiconductors
Preamble
Cyclotron resonance: Basic description
Experimental techniques
Effective mass measurements
Shifts and coupling of the resonance
Magneto-excitons vs. cyclotron resonance
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Scattering, inelastic: Electron
Introduction
Cross-section for inelastic scattering
Interband transitions
Plasmon excitations
Vibrations at surfaces
Excitation of core electrons
(e-, 2e-) Scattering
Conclusion
References
Raman spectroscopy: Nanostructures
Introduction
Overview
Raman spectroscopy basics
Phonons in nanostructures
Resonance Raman scattering in nanostructures
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Scattering techniques, Compton
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Scattering: Inelastic scattering technique-Brillouin
Introduction
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Further reading
Scattering, inelastic: X-ray (methods and applications)
Introduction
Theoretical aspects
IXS from electronic excitations
IXS from phonons
Conclusion
References
Nuclear resonant scattering
Introduction
Properties of nuclear resonances
Scattering processes
NRIXS
Experimental procedure
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant website
Scattering, Rayleigh
Introduction
Molecular Rayleigh scattering
Scattering and fluctuations
Rayleigh scattering from pure fluids and fluid mixtures
Scattering from dispersed particles
Dynamic Rayleigh scattering
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Shubnikov-de Haas and de Haas-van Alphen Techniques
Historical Introduction
Basic Theoretical Models
Special Cases
Experimental Techniques
Further Reading
Core photoemission from graphene to silicene
Introduction
Overview of core photoemission spectroscopy
Key issues on core photoemission spectroscopy and its application to important examples, namely the elemental two-dimension ...
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Harmonic generation frequency conversion
Introduction
Nonlinear polarization and susceptibilities
Second harmonic generation
Phase-matching
Quasi phase-matching
High-order harmonic generation
The three-step model
Phase-matching in high-order harmonic generation
Conclusion
References
Valence photoemission
Introduction
The information content
Photoemission with synchrotron sources
Techniques requiring high-brightness synchrotron sources
Valence photoemission of correlated systems
Conclusion
References
Spectroscopy: Impedance spectroscopy and mobility spectra
Glossary
Introduction
Conclusion
Multimedia
Acknowledgment
References
Plasmon-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: Principles and applications
Introduction
Understanding PERS enhancement
Main PERS features
SERS for sensitive analytes detection
TERS: Hot Spot On Demand
Overview of selected PERS applications and conclusion
References
Optical tweezers: Theory and practice
Introduction
Theory of optical trapping
Experimental setup and calibration techniques
Applications
Conclusion
References
Angle-resolved photoemission of topological materials
Introduction
Topological insulators
Magnetic topological insulators
Topological crystalline insulators and weak topological insulators
Dirac semimetals
Nonmagnetic Weyl semimetals
Magnetic Weyl semimetals and kagome systems
Case study: Transition metal dichalcogenides
Topological nodal-line semimetals
Topological chiral semimetals
Correlated topological insulators
Topological superconductors
Ultrafast experiments
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Metals and Metallic Alloys, Optical Properties of
Reflection and Transmission
Surface Plasmon Polaritons
Plasma Waves in Metal Optics
Magnetooptics
`Left-Handed Materials,´´ Optics for <0 and μ<0 Further Reading Nonlinear Optics Introduction Physical Origin of Nonlinearity Second-Order Nonlinear Effects Third-Order Nonlinear Effects Stimulated Raman and Brillouin Scattering Further Reading Surfaces, Optical Properties of Introduction Results Obtained with SDR Results Obtained with RAS Results Obtained with Ellipsometry Other Experimental Techniques Theory Conclusion Further Reading X-Ray Topography Introduction Principle of the Topographic Techniques Some Results of Dynamical Theory Effect of Imperfections: Contrast Mechanisms Diffraction Topographic Techniques Synchrotron Radiation Topography: Real-Time Investigations and Coherence-Related Effects Simulations of X-Ray Topographs Conclusion References Further Reading Laser radiation sources Introduction Creating population inversion and laser beam properties Interaction of light with matter 1 Rate-equation approximation and the laser amplifier Laser resonators and beam modes Single mode continuous laser operation Laser types: Important laser active media Laser transients: Q-switching pulse generation Laser transients: Mode-locking and ultra-short pulse generation Conclusion References Synchrotron radiation Introduction: X-ray sources The relativistic basis of synchrotron sources Main properties of synchrotron sources Different types of synchrotron sources Practical use of synchrotron sources Conclusion Further reading Radiation sources: X-ray sources Introduction Natural sources (astronomy) Conventional sources Synchrotron sources Fourth generation light sources Laser plasma X-ray sources Conclusion References Neutron sources Introduction Neutron scattering for condensed matter research Historical evolution of neutron sources Production of neutrons Neutron energies and properties Moderation of neutrons Neutron beam transport Conclusion Acknowledgment References Electron and positron sources List of symbols Introduction Electron sources Positron sources Conclusion References The fundamental laws of thermodynamics; Role of surroundings in heat and work transfer Introduction The zeroth law, temperature, and equations of state Force, heat, work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics Heat transfer, entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Cyclic processes: The Clausius inequality Efficiencies of cyclic engines: Kelvin and Planck statements Deficit functions and their use in setting up functions of state Standard formulation for differentials of state functions: Maxwell relations The Third Law of Thermodynamics: Unattainability of zero temperature Thermodynamics of anisotropic media Application of thermodynamic concepts Reprise and extension of fundamentals Conclusion Irreversible thermodynamics as applied to basic electron transport theory in sol/ce:cross-ref> Introductory comments Elementary description of heat and mass transport Basic principles of mass, energy, and entropy balances Conclusion Acknowledgment Reference Thermodynamics: Phase transformations Introduction Phase stability thermodynamics Phase stability hierarchy Thermodynamics of nanoscale systems Advances in analysis Conclusion References Incommensurate phases Introduction Theoretical presentation of superspace for the description of aperiodic structures The habit of Calaverite (Au1-xAgxTe2 with x<0.15) or the macroscopic manifestation of incommensurate phases Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 The luminescence of Europium containing scheelites Structure evolution of the organic perovskite CH3NH3PbI3 by thermal cycling around the phase transitions Conclusion Acknowledgment References Thermodynamics of information Introduction Information Shannon and thermodynamic entropies Second law for feedback processes Informational states and Landauer's principle Restoring the second law Information flows Conclusion: What is information? Acknowledgment References Quantum annealing and computation Introduction Simulated (classical) annealing Quantum tunneling advantage for annealing Quantum annealing in spin glasses Quantum annealer using optical lattice in a cavity Conclusion and further reading Acknowledgment References Molecular dynamics calculations: Machine learning Introduction Molecular dynamics calculations Machine learned interatomic potentials Further use of machine learning in molecular dynamics Conclusion References Materials informatics with machine learning Introduction Computational screening Machine learning Descriptor Machine-learning potentials Bayesian optimization Gaussian process regression Acquisition functions Conclusion References Relevant websites Classical statistical mechanics Introduction Overview Key issues Conclusion References Statistical mechanics: Quantum Introduction Conclusion References Quantum biology: An overview Introduction Photosynthesis Magnetoreception with radical pairs Other contenders Conclusion References Fundamental aspects of quantum biology Introduction Historical overview Elementary concepts of quantum mechanics: coherent superpositions of states, tunneling, and entanglement Applications Conclusion References Nature´s novel materials: A review of quantum biology Introduction The biological context Conclusion Acknowledgment References Physics of protein folding Introduction The native structure: Hierarchical organization and physical interactions Knotted proteins The protein folding transition The thermodynamic hypothesis and the paradox of Levinthal The energy landscape theory and folding funnels Folding mechanisms Folding kinetics Folding and knotting Conclusion Acknowledgment References How protein fold: Insights from nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Introduction Basic principles of NMR NMR approaches to characterize protein folding Challenges and limitations Conclusion Acknowledgment References Solid-State NMR Structural Studies of Proteins Introduction Interactions Sample Preparation Structural Analysis Using Solid-State NMR Applications Conclusion Acknowledgment Further Reading Protein Folding, Engineering of Introduction Protein Engineering Characterizing Folding Pathways: -Value Analysis Interpretation of -Values CI2 Protein-Engineering Results: The Nucleation-Condensation Mechanism Barnase: Hierarchical Folding Mechanisms Ultrafast Folders: The Engrailed Homeodomain A Unifying Mechanism? Computational Approaches Further Reading Protein Folding and Aggregation Introduction Models for Folding Aggregation Further Reading Protein Folding and Evolution Introduction Basics of Protein Structure Early Studies on Protein Folding Complexity of the Protein-folding Problem Structure Prediction of Proteins by Empirical and Physical Models Protein Evolution Recent Topics in Protein-Folding Research Further Reading Relevant Website DNA and RNA, biophysical aspects Introduction Structures of DNA and RNA Major helical structures of DNA B-DNA B-DNA A-DNA Z-DNA ps-DNA RNA structure and function DNA topology Knots of DNA DNA supercoiling Structural transitions and unusual structures DNA melting B-Z transition Cruciforms Triplexes Quadruplexes Bent DNA RNA unusual structures Nanostructures and nanodevices from DNA and RNA Biophysical methods to study DNA and RNA Theoretical models Gel electrophoresis Single-molecule experiments with DNA and RNA Further reading DNA and RNA, electronic and electric properties Introduction Conductance in organic molecules Contacting techniques for DNA and RNA Electrical properties of single DNA and RNA molecules Nanopores DNA Origami Conclusion References Genetic Algorithms for Biological Systems Introduction Topology of Genetic Regulatory Networks Combinatorics in Genetic Networks, and an Evolution Model Further Reading Ion Transport in Biological Membranes Structure and Function of Transport Proteins The Cell Membrane as an Equivalent Circuitry of Parallel Ion Channels with Variable Conductance: An Explanation for Complex ... Further Reading Electric and Magnetic Fields in Cells and Tissues Introduction Mechanisms and Frequencies of Field Generation and Interaction Passive Electric Properties of Biological Matter Dispersions Properties of Aqueous Media Passive Membrane Properties Impedance and AC-Electrokinetic Phenomena The Induced Transmembrane Potential (DeltaPhi) Absorption The Physiological Transmembrane Potential (DeltaPsi) Passive Magnetic Properties of Biological Matter Generation and Effects of Magnetic Fields Further Reading Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields Introduction Bioeffects of Static Fields Bioeffects of ELF Fields Conclusion Bioeffects of IF Fields Bioeffects of RF Fields Conclusion Medical Applications Occupational Exposures Health Risk Assessment Further Reading Metalloproteins, Structural Determination of Introduction The Magnetic Susceptibility in Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Systems The Dipole-Dipole Interaction Pseudocontact Shift Restraints Relaxation Enhancement Restraints Cross-Correlation between Curie and Dipole-Dipole Relaxation Restraints Self-Orientation Residual Dipolar Coupling Restraints Contact Shift (and Hyperfine Shift) Restraints Collecting the Paramagnetism-Based Restraints Solution Structure Determination Programs Recovering Information on Structure Heterogeneity Paramagnetic Tagging of Diamagnetic Proteins Conclusion Further Reading Photosynthesis, Physics of Introduction Photosynthetic Machinery Harvesting Light Antenna Action: Energy Transfer Energy Conversion and Storage From Natural to Artificial Photosynthesis References Further Reading Biomedical Materials The Need for Biomedical Materials Bone Defects Biomedical Materials Scaffolds for Bone Repair Spectroscopy and Biophotonics Conclusion Acknowledgment Further Reading Back Cover Volume-5 Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics Copyright Editor-in-chief biography Editorial Advisory Board Introduction References List of Contributors for Volume 5 Contents of Volume 5 Magnetic point groups and space groups Introduction Two-valued properties Magnetic point groups Magnetic space groups Extinctions in neutron diffraction of antiferromagnetic crystals Conclusion: Generalizations of magnetic groups Acknowledgment References Crystal structure Introduction Crystal symmetry Unit cell contents Crystallographic databases The refinement model Measures of quality Derived geometric parameters Further reading Periodicity and lattices Lattices in two and three dimensions The reciprocal lattice, diffraction, and electronic band structure Variations of periodicity: Superstructures and aperiodicity Reference Further reading Crystal structure determination Introduction Types of input data Structure factor normalization Reflection statistics Classification of phasing methods Ab initio phasing methods Direct space methods Phasing methods for low-resolution diffraction data Conclusion References Further reading Macromolecular crystallography Introduction Text Conclusion References Point groups Brief review of groups Introduction to point groups General and crystallographic point groups Symbols of the 32 crystallographic point groups Description of point groups Subgroups of the crystallographic point groups Symmetry of physical properties Tensors of odd rank Enantiomorphism and optical activity (optical gyration) Curie's principle Further reading Space Groups Introduction Lattice Periodicity Distance-Preserving Transformations Space Groups, Plane Groups, Higher Dimensions The Structure of a Space Group Space Group Elements Classification Notation Reciprocal Lattice, Invariant Functions, Extinction Rules Representations of Space Groups Aperiodic Crystals Further Reading Crystal Symmetry Schoenflies Symbols Hermann-Mauguin (International) Symbols Introduction Lattices and Their Symmetries Crystallographic Coordinate Systems Crystallographic Symmetry Operations and Symmetry Elements Matrix Representation of Symmetry Operations Symbols for Point Groups and Space Groups Acknowledgment Further Reading Crystal optics Introduction Maxwell equations Constitutive equation in anisotropic medium Fresnel equation, wave vector surface, and ray surface Optical properties of uniaxial crystals Optical properties of biaxial crystals Polarization devices based on the crystal optics Conclusion References Holography Introduction Principle of holography Principal holographic setups Speckle noise in holographic imaging Hologram characteristics and recording procedure Applications of optical holography Computer-generated holograms and diffractive optics Digital holography Artificial surfaces Conclusion References Sum rules and Kramers-Kronig relations in linear and nonlinear optics Introduction Elementary description of sum rules Kramers-Kronig dispersion relations Kramers-Kronig relations and linear sum rules Relativistic and spatial dependent corrections General description of nonlinear optical functions Kramers-Kronig relations and sum rules in non-linear optics Examples and applications to nonlinear processes Conclusion References Semiconductor optics Introduction The dielectric function Interband transitions Phonon-assisted transitions Excitons and polaritons Modulation spectroscopy Novel light emitting materials Conclusion References Ultrafast optics of topological materials Introduction Solids in a field of an optical pulse Topological properties of graphene-like materials Ultrafast electron dynamics: Interference effects Ultrafast electron dynamics: Topological resonance Conclusion References Electromagnetically induced transparency Introduction Coherence and population trapping Electromagnetic induced transparency Fast and slow light Light storage EIT analogs Conclusion References Optical properties of materials Introduction Maxwell's equations in a medium The complex dielectric function Complex refractive index Reflection and transmission properties Optical spectra and theoretical models: Selected examples Conclusion References Photon statistics and coherence theory Introduction Coherent light - Poissonian statistics Thermal and chaotic light - Super Poissonian statistics Nonclassical light - Sub Poissonian statistics and role of quantum detection efficiency First order coherence Second order coherence Brown-Twiss correlations - Photon bunching and photon antibunching Basic photon statistics at beam splitters Conclusion References Further reading Point defects Glossary Introduction: Types of point defects Control of point defects Point defect diffusion Point defects in normal metals and superconductors Point defects in semiconductors Point defects in insulators Semiconducting oxides Point defects for quantum computing Conclusion References Methods for bulk growth of inorganic crystals Introduction Melt growth Solution growth Vapor growth Conclusion References Relevant websites Crystal binding (interatomic forces): Ionic bonding and crystals Introduction The rigid ion model Beyond the rigid ion model Modeling deformable ions Machine-learned potentials Conclusion References Crystal binding (interatomic forces): Metallic bonding and crystals Introduction Band structure Tight Binding approximation Band filling and metallic behavior Band structure in three dimensions Dependence of metallic structure on the density of states Conclusion References Crystal growth, bulk: Theory and models Introduction Overview and key issues Conclusion Acknowledgment References Film growth and epitaxy methods Introduction Physical vapor deposition Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) Atomic layer deposition Energy-assisted chemical vapor deposition Film growth by condensed-phase reaction Liquid phase epitaxy Conclusion Acknowledgment References Thin Films, Mechanical Behavior of Introduction Thin Film Stresses Measurements of Thin Film Deformation Plastic Behavior Elastic and Anelastic Behavior Fracture and Delamination Conclusion Further Reading Electronic and transport properties of aperiodic media Aperiodic media Transport mechanisms The Hull Noncommutative Brillouin zone Exponents Conductivity References Further reading Lattice dynamics: Aperiodic crystals Introduction Incommensurate modulated structures Incommensurate composites Quasicrystals Phonon dispersions Generalized vibrational density-of-states Atomic dynamics and cluster structure Quasicrystals and their rational approximants Low-energy modes in quasicrystals Temperature dependence of the atomic dynamics Phason flips Phason fluctuation in quasicrystals Conclusion References Electronic structure of quasicrystals Introduction Aperiodically ordered solids Quasicrystal surfaces Transport properties Magnetic properties Electronic density of states The nature of the electronic states The role of clusters Conclusion References Further reading Vibrational excitations in disordered solids Introduction Models and suggestions for explaining the BP anomalies Experimental investigations Simulations Discussion References Atomic structure of quasicrystals Introduction Which system forms quasicrystal? Superspace crystallography and quasicrystals Structural quality of quasicrystal From diffraction data to a quasicrystal model: The case of the CdYb icosahedral quasicrystalline phase Other examples Beyond the ideal quasicrystalline model and phason modes Conclusion Acknowledgment References Materials: Composites Introduction Overview of composite materials and applications Reinforcements Glass fibers Carbon (graphite) fibers Boron fibers Fibers based on silicon carbide Fibers based on alumina Aramid fibers High-density polyethylene fibers PBO fibers Characteristics and properties of composite materials Overview of mechanical and physical properties Overview of manufacturing processes Polymer matrix composites Metal matrix composites Carbon matrix composites Ceramic matrix composites Thermal management materials Conclusion Acknowledgment References Self-organized porous semiconductor compounds Introduction Formation, morphology and physical properties of self-organized arrays of pores in semiconductor compounds Hopping electrodeposition: The deposition of self-organized monolayer of Au nanodots on porous structures Applications of self-organized ordered arrays Conclusion Acknowledgment References Structures: Liquid crystals Introduction Nematic phases Calamitic mesophases Discotic or columnar mesophases Bent-core mesophases Conclusion References Highly Porous Metals and Ceramics Introduction Mechanical Properties and Performance Requirements Transport Properties and Multifunctional Applications Further Reading Dislocations Introduction Principal Characteristics of Dislocations Elastic Fields and Energy Associated with Dislocations Forces on Dislocations and Interaction between Dislocations Dislocation Multiplication Dislocation Dissociation and Stacking Faults Dislocation Cores Further Reading Lattice Dynamics: Anharmonic Effects Introduction Formulation of the Problem Thermodynamics Phonon Spectra and Damping Transport Properties Further Reading Ceramic Materials Introduction Properties Mechanical/Structural Electrical Optical Processing Additive Manufacturing of Ceramics Thin Film Techniques Sustainable Processing Trends in Ceramic Materials Conclusion Further Reading Polymers, History of Introduction Early History: Developments in the Nineteenth Century The First Synthetic Plastic The Dawn of Understanding The Post 1930s Final Words Further Reading Neutrons and Neutron Scattering, History of Introduction Establishing the Conceptual Foundations Neutron Diffraction Inelastic Scattering Polarized Neutrons Polarization Analysis Neutron Spin Echo Steady-State and Pulsed Neutron Sources Neutron Optics Further Reading Ceramics, History of Introduction History of Development of Ceramics Conclusion Further Reading Porous Silicon Generalities and Definitions Fabrication Procedures Optical Properties PL Other Bands Applications Further Reading Electronic states of semiconductor compounds and alloys Introduction Overview Key issues Conclusion References Further reading Relevant websites Intermetallic Compounds, Electronic States of Introduction What are Intermetallic Compounds? Classifying Electronic States in Intermetallic Compounds Electronic Interactions Between Different Metallic Types d-(s)p Interactions Conclusion Further Reading Transition-Metal Compounds, Electronic and Magnetic Properties of Introduction Metal-Ligand Interactions The d-Block dn Configurations Metal-Metal Interactions Additional Illustrative Examples Rutiles Energy Bands and Redox Couples Rare-Earth Compounds Transition-Metal d-Block Compounds Further Reading Micromechanical Devices and Systems Introduction Micromachining Materials for MEMS Microactuators Applications Sensors Printers Optical Devices Chemistry and Biomedical Applications Future Development of MEMS References Further Reading Alloys: Overview Introduction Crystal structures in metals and alloys Phase stability and transformations in metallic alloys Properties of metallic alloys Advanced metallic materials Conclusion References Alloys: Iron Introduction The production of iron alloys Structure and properties of iron Alloying elements in iron Phase transformations in iron alloys Thermomechanical behavior Some recent developments in iron alloys Conclusion References Alloys: Steel Objectives Introduction Iron Alloying element behavior in iron Interstitial alloying elements Substitutional alloying elements Phase transformations and microstructures Categories of irons and steels Processing Mechanical properties Chemical properties Functional properties Conclusion References Alloys: Magnesium Introduction Overview Key issues Conclusion References Further reading Electronic structure: Impurity and defect states in metals and alloys Introduction The Green's function from multiple scattering theory Pure metals Impurities in metals Coherent potential approximation Order-N methods Extensions and approximations Conclusion References Alloys: Aluminum Introduction Main features and classification of aluminum alloys Processing of aluminum alloys Aluminum alloy design Non-heat-treatable alloys Heat-treatable alloys Alloys for additive manufacturing Conclusion References Relevant websites Alloys: The superalloys Introduction Classification and key phases in superalloys Physical metallurgy Future industry demands and sustainability considerations Conclusion Acknowledgment References Relevant websites Alloys: Copper Introduction Copper production Properties of copper Uses Electrical properties Color Deformation mechanisms Commercial grades of copper Copper alloys High copper alloys Copper silver alloys Beryllium copper Chromium and zirconium copper Copper nickel silicon alloys (nickel-silicon bronze) Oxygen dispersion-strengthened (ODS) copper Commercial alloys Brass Bronze Aluminum bronze Copper nickel alloys Shape memory alloys Property relationships Manufacturing processes Casting Forming Extrusion and forging Powder processing Additive manufacturing Deformation textures Thermal response Recovery Recrystallization Grain growth Annealing textures Anisotropy Corrosion Hydrogen sickness Conclusion References Further reading Alloys: Titanium Introduction Crystallographic Structure of Phases in Titanium Alloys Effects of Crystal Orientations on Mechanical Properties The Classification of Titanium Alloys Heat Treating of Titanium Alloys Welding of Titanium Alloys Challenging and Problematic Issues with Titanium Alloys Further Reading High-entropy alloys: An overview on the fundamentals, development, and future perspective Introduction Concepts and definition of high-entropy alloys The four core effects and related theories of high-entropy alloys Development of special high-entropy alloys Future perspective Conclusion Acknowledgment References Halide perovskites: Properties, synthesis, and applications Introduction Overview Key issues Conclusion References Powder processing-Models and simulations Greek letters Subscripts Averaging operator Introduction Simulation method Model validity and application Conclusion References Molecular clusters Introduction Theoretical principles Syntheses and characterizations Applications Conclusion References Electronic states of carbon materials Introduction Hybrid orbitals Diamond Graphene and graphite Carbon nanotubes Fullerenes and fullerites Miscellaneous synthetic carbons Disordered carbons Conclusion References Atomic layer deposition of materials Introduction to and general principle of ALD Overview Conclusion Acknowledgment References Relevant websites Catalysts: Combinatorial heterogeneous catalysis Introduction The hierarchical workflow in heterogeneous catalysis High-throughput synthesis technologies High-throughput characterization and screening techniques Applications Conclusion References Catalysts: Materials Introduction Applications of catalysis in chemical processes Status of catalysis research and catalyst discovery Kinetic considerations Aspects of adsorption Catalysis The principle of Sabatier Microkinetic modeling Catalyst properties, shapes, and preparation Catalyst characterization Catalyst deactivation Conclusion References Numerical Approximation and Analysis Introduction Approximation of Functions Ordinary Differential Equations Integral Equations Systems of Linear Equations Further Reading Computer Simulation Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics Introduction MD Algorithms Importance Sampling Monte Carlo Methods Path-Integral Monte Carlo (PIMC) Conclusion Further Reading Multicircle Diffractometry Methods Introduction Four-Circle Eulerian Geometry Angle Calculations Alternative Four-Circle Geometries Five-Circle and Six-Circle Diffractometers Acknowledgment Further Reading Disorder and Localization Theory IntroductionClassical Treatment of Disorder
Weak Disorder and the Role of Interferences
Disorder, Density of States, and Wave Functions
Two-Dimensional Systems
One-Dimensional and Quasi-One-Dimensional Systems
Level Statistics
Transfer Matrix Techniques
Scaling Approach
Potential Well Analogy
Other Realizations
Further Reading
Optical Properties of Insulators
Band Model and Optical Properties
Spin-Orbit Mott insulators
Topological Kondo Insulators
Exciton Model and the Optical Spectrum Near the Absorption Edge
Dipole-Dipole Interaction Contributing to the Translational Motion of an Exciton
The Effect of Spin and the Interplay of Exchange and Spin-Orbit Interactions
Participation of Phonons in the Electronic Excitation
Absorption Bands of Extrinsic Origin below the Band gap
Intrinsic Photoluminescence and Its Correlation with the Urbach Rule
Optical Excitation of Inner Shell Electrons
References
Further Reading
Ruthenates
Introduction
Ruthenate Perovskites and Post-Perovskites
Ruddlesden-Popper (RP) Ruthenates
Ruthenate Hexagonal Perovskite Polytypes
Pyrochlore Ruthenates
The Quasi-Two-Dimensional Ruthenates
The Quasi-One-Dimensional Ruthenates Ln3RuO7
Ruthenium as a Substituting Element in Oxides
References
Further Reading
Optical Fibers
Introduction
Structure and Modes
Attenuation
Dispersion
Special Fibers
Fiber Bragg Gratings
Fiber Amplifiers and Lasers
Nonlinear Fiber Optics
Further Reading
Light Emitting Diodes
Introduction
Recombination in Direct-Gap and Indirect-Gap Semiconductors
Optical Emission Spectrum
Homostructures and Heterostructures
Light-Extraction in LEDs
White LEDs
DUV LEDs
LED Packaging
References
Diamond Anvil Cells
History and Background
Principles of the Diamond Anvil Cell
Gaskets
Heating a Sample in a DAC can be Achieved by
Pressure Measurement
Primary Pressure Measurement
Secondary Pressure Measurement
Temperature Measurement
Pressure Measurement at High Temperatures
Analytical Methods
Recent Advances
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Index
Back Cover