Series Preface
Preface
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Methods and Protocols for Pulsed Electric Fields Treatment of Foods
1 Introduction
2 Procedures for PEF Processing
2.1 Sample Handling and Preparation Prior to PEF Treatment
2.2 Preparation of PEF Equipment
2.3 Operational Procedure for PEF Treatment Process
2.4 Operational Procedure for Continuous PEF Treatment Process
2.4.1 Procedure
3 Procedures for Measuring the Process Parameters and Efficiency
3.1 Monitoring Electric Pulses Delivery During PEF Treatment
3.1.1 Procedure
3.2 Monitoring Output Voltage, Current, and Other Output Parameters During PEF Treatment
3.3 Measurement of Temperature During or After PEF Treatment
4 Estimating the Degree of Cell Disintegration After PEF Treatment
4.1 Direct Measurement of Electrical Conductivity Before and After PEF Treatment
4.1.1 Procedure
4.2 Estimation of the Cell Disintegration Index Through Electrical Conductivity Measurement (Suitable for Solid Foods)
4.2.1 Procedure
4.3 Estimation of the Cell Disintegration Index Through Impedance Measurement (Suitable for Solid Foods)
4.3.1 Procedure
4.4 Determination of Electrolyte Leakage (Suitable for Solid Plant Foods Only)
4.4.1 Procedure
4.5 Monitoring the Leakage of Cell Contents of a Sample as a Function of Time After PEF Treatment (Suitable for Solid Foods On...
4.5.1 Procedure
4.6 Microstructural Analysis (Suitable for Solid Foods)
4.6.1 Procedure
4.7 Texture Analysis (Suitable for Solid Foods Only)
4.7.1 Procedure
4.8 Determination of the Treatment Homogeneity by Considering the Biochemical Changes of Food Sample After PEF Treatment
4.8.1 Cell Viability Staining Technique Using Neutral Red (NR) (Based on Passive Diffusion of the Dye Across the Tonoplast Mem...
Procedure
4.8.2 Cell Viability Staining Technique Using Tetrazolium Salt (Based on Reduction of Oxidoreductase Enzymes in the Mitochondr...
Procedure
4.8.3 Visual Examination of the Enzymatic Browning Area (Based on Enzymatic Browning Reaction Between Endogenous Polyphenol Ox...
Procedure
5 Monitoring the Condition of Electrodes in the PEF Treatment Chamber
5.1 Procedure Involving Routine Inspection of the Electrode
5.2 Procedure Involving Quantification of Metal Ions
5.3 Procedure Involving Microscopic Inspection of the Electrode Surface
6 Notes
References
Chapter 2: Cold Plasma Processing: Methods and Applications in Study of Food Decontamination
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Preparation of Food Samples and Microbial Cultures
2.2 Preparation of the Plasma Source
2.3 Preparation of Packages and/or Sample Holders
3 Methods
3.1 Inoculation of Samples
3.2 Plasma Treatment of Food Samples
3.3 Enumeration of Treated Food Samples
3.4 Electrical Characterization of the Plasma Discharge
Box 1 MATLAB Script to Calculate the Power Fed to Plasma Discharge Using Lissajous Method
3.5 Study of Plasma Chemistry
4 Operator Safety
5 Notes
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Plasma-Activated Water: Methods and Protocols in Food Processing Applications
1 Introduction: Cold Plasma Interactions with Water
2 Materials
2.1 Chemicals and Equipment
2.2 Water Samples
3 Methods
3.1 PAW Generation
3.2 Study of PAW Chemistry
3.2.1 Electrical Conductivity (EC)
3.2.2 pH and Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP)
3.2.3 Estimation of Nitrate (NO3-) Concentration
3.2.4 Estimation of Nitrites (NO2-) Concentration
3.2.5 Determination of Peroxide (O22-) Content
3.2.6 Determination of Ammonium Ions (NH4+)
3.2.7 Reactive Species Estimation via Multiwavelength Transmission Spectroscopy
3.2.8 Overview of the Equipment That Can Be Used for RONS-Related Analysis in PAW
3.3 Decontamination of Food with PAW
3.3.1 Preparation of Sample
3.3.2 Plating
3.3.3 Incubation
3.3.4 Interpretation
4 Notes
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Ozone Processing of Foods: Methods and Procedures Related to Process Parameters
1 Introduction
1.1 Advantages of Ozone
1.2 Limitations of Ozone
2 Ozone Processing Parameters
2.1 Extrinsic Parameters
2.1.1 Concentration of Ozone
2.1.2 Flow Rate
2.1.3 Physical State of Ozone
2.1.4 Temperature
2.1.5 Exposure Time
2.2 Intrinsic Parameters
2.2.1 pH
2.2.2 Organic Matter
3 Equipment in Ozonation System
3.1 Oxygen Concentrator
3.2 Ozone Generator
3.3 Collector
3.4 Ozone Analyzer
3.5 Ozone Destructor
4 Materials and Methods
5 Notes
References
Chapter 5: Application of Electrolyzed Water as Disinfecting Agent in Table Egg to Decrease the Incidence of Foodborne Pathoge...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Oxidation Reduction Potential and pH Measurements
2.2 Chlorine Measurement (ppm)
2.3 Egg Wash
2.4 Bacterial Count
2.5 Haugh Units
3 Notes
References
Chapter 6: Combination of Electrolyzed Water and Other Measures for Food Decontamination: Methods and Procedures
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Electrolyzed Water Production
2.1.1 Alkaline and Acidic Electrolyzed Water (AlEW and AEW)
2.1.2 Slightly Acidic Electrolyzed Water (SAEW)
2.1.3 Neutral Electrolyzed Water (NEW)
2.2 Organic Acids
2.3 Ultrasonicator
2.4 Salts
3 Methods
3.1 Electrolyzed Water (EW) Production
3.2 Preparation of Organic Acid Solution and Combination with EW
3.3 Combination of Ultrasonication and EW
3.4 Combination of EW and Thermal Process
3.5 Combination of Salt and EW
4 Notes
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Ultrasound-Assisted Drying of Food
1 Introduction
1.1 Drying
1.2 Ultrasound
1.3 Ultrasound Mechanisms
2 Materials
2.1 Sample Preparation
2.2 Ultrasound Equipment
2.3 Other Materials
3 Methods
3.1 Sonication in an Ultrasonic Bath
3.2 Sonication with the Probe
3.3 Contact Ultrasound
3.4 Drying of the Sonicated Samples
3.5 Sonication Applied During Drying
4 Notes
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Ultrasonic Decontamination and Process Intensification
1 Introduction
2 Ultrasonic Systems, Setup, and Characterization
2.1 Contact-Type Ultrasound Systems
2.2 Airborne Ultrasound Treatment for Foods
3 Ultrasonic-Induced Chemical Reactions
3.1 Procedure to Determine Hydrogen Peroxide Generated Using Titanium Sulfate Assay
3.2 Procedure to Determine Substance Oxidation Using Ferrous Oxidation in Xylenol Orange (FOX) Assay
3.3 General Considerations for TiSO4 and FOX Assays
4 Procedures for Ultrasonic Decontamination
4.1 Viable Counts of Microorganisms
4.2 Viable Counts of Different Mutant Cells
4.3 Transcriptomic Analysis
4.4 Whole Genome Sequencing
4.5 Other Techniques
5 Ultrasonic Process Intensification
5.1 Procedure for US-Assisted Brining
5.2 Method for Determination of Chloride Ion Concentration by Titration (MohrΒ΄s Method)
5.3 Method for Determination of Sodium Content with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
6 Notes
References
Chapter 9: Pulsed Light for Grape and Wine Processing
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 YEPD Medium
2.2 Lysine Medium
2.3 Chromogenic Medium
2.4 LOM Medium
3 Methods
3.1 Immobilized Grapes
3.2 Non-immobilized Grapes
3.3 Microbial Counts
3.4 Micro-fermentations
4 Notes
References
Chapter 10: Electrospinning in Food Processing
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical Background
1.2 Theory of Electrospinning
2 Materials
2.1 Polymers for Electrospinning
2.2 Electrospinning Setup
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation of Polymer Solution for Electrospinning
3.2 Control of Electrospun Fiber Morphology and Diameter
3.3 Loading of Bioactive Compounds into Fibers
3.3.1 Blended Electrospinning
3.3.2 Coaxial Electrospinning
3.3.3 Emulsion Electrospinning
3.4 Characterization of Electrospun Fibers
3.4.1 Solution Properties of Zein and Gallic Acid
3.4.2 Fiber Properties
3.4.3 Fiber Diameter
3.4.4 Thermal Properties of the Electrospun Fibers
3.4.5 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Pattern of Electrospun Fibers
3.4.6 Stability Testing Using Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) Spectroscopy
4 Notes
References
Chapter 11: Methods for Screening and Evaluation of Edible Coatings with Essential Oils as an Emerging Fruit Preservation Tech...
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Fungal Strains and Growth Conditions
2.2 Preparation of Chi and EO Dispersions and Coatings
2.3 Effects of Chi and EO on Fungal Spore Germination
2.4 Effects of Chi and EO on Fungal Mycelial Growth
2.5 Effects of Chi and EO on Fungal Postharvest Disease in Fruit
3 Methods
3.1 Fungal Strains and Growth Conditions
3.2 Preparation of Chi and EO Dispersions and Coatings
3.3 Effects of Chi and EO on Fungal Spore Germination
3.4 Effects of Chi and EO on Fungal Mycelial Growth
3.5 Evaluation of the Type of Interaction of Chi and EO
3.6 Effects of Chi and EO on Fungal Postharvest Diseases in Fruit
4 Notes
References
Chapter 12: Ohmic Heating for Food Processing: Methods and Procedures Related to Process Parameters
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Set Up a Static Ohmic Heating System (Fig. 1) (See Notes 1-3)
2.2 Electrical Conductivity Measurement
2.2.1 Electrical Conductivity Measurement of Liquid Foods (See Notes 10 and 11)
Salt Solution
2.2.2 Electrical Conductivity Measurement of Solid Foods (See Notes 10 and 11)
Comparison of Electrical Conductivity of Intact and Damaged Plant Cells
Fresh and Blanched Carrots
Comparison of Electrical Conductivity of Plant Cells with Different Pretreatments
Comparison of Electrical Conductivity of Carrots Blanched in Salt Solution and Water
Comparison of Electrical Conductivity of Meat with Fiber Oriented Parallel and Perpendicular to the Electric Field
2.3 Temperature Profiles of Liquid Foods Containing a Single Particle Under Static Ohmic Heating System (See Note 14)
2.3.1 Particle Less Conductive Than the Medium (See Note 15)
2.3.2 Particle More Conductive Than the Medium (See Note 15)
2.3.3 Comparison on Temperature Profiles
2.4 Orange Juice Treated Between Static Ohmic Heating and Conventional Heating (See Note 16)
2.4.1 Orange Juice
2.4.2 Conventional Heating
2.4.3 Ohmic Heating
2.4.4 Product Analysis
2.4.5 Microbiological Experiment (See Notes 20-22)
Determine Total Plate Counts Using the Pour Plate Method (Adapted from)
Determine Yeast and Mold Counts Using the Spread Plate Method (Adapted from)
2.4.6 Heat Generation and Energy Consumption Calculation
2.4.7 Comparison on Product Properties, Microbial Counts, and Energy Consumption
2.5 Determination of Vitamin C Degradation in Acid Juice
3 Notes
References
Chapter 13: Microwave Processing: Methods and Procedures Related to Process Parameters
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Solvent-Free Microwave Hydrodistillation (SFME) of Orange Essential Oil
2.1.1 Microwave Extraction
2.1.2 Analysis
2.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity High Polyphenolic Content Grape Berry Extraction
2.2.1 Extraction
2.2.2 Analysis
3 Methods
3.1 Solvent-Free Microwave Hydrodistillation (SFME) of Orange Essential Oil
3.1.1 Ground Orange Peels (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8)
3.1.2 Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction
3.1.3 Chromatographic Analysis of the Orange Essential Oil
3.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity High Polyphenolic Content Grape Berry Extraction
3.2.1 Obtaining the Grape Berry By-Product
3.2.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity Extraction
3.2.3 Analysis of the Polyphenolic and Anthocyanin Content of the Extract
Determination of Total Phenolic Content
Determination of Total Anthocyanin Contents
4 Notes
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Infrared Heating Processing: Methods and Procedures Related to Process Parameters
1 Introduction
1.1 Emitter Spectral Characteristics
1.2 Characteristics of Material to Be Heated and Heating Environment
2 Materials
3 Methods
3.1 Determination of Moisture Content during IR Drying of Strawberries
3.2 Determination of Effective Moisture Diffusion and Activation Energy
3.3 Calculation of Drying Rate
3.4 Determination of Critical Moisture Content and Drying Rate Periods
3.5 Analytical Calculation of Drying Rates
3.6 Mass Transfer Coefficient Calculation
4 Notes
References
Chapter 15: Protocol in Food Extrusion Technology
1 Introduction
2 Materials
3 Methods
3.1 Principle of Extrusion Technology
3.2 Single-Screw Extruder
3.3 Twin-Screw Extruder (TSE)
4 Effect of Extrusion on Physicochemical Product Parameters
4.1 Protein
4.2 Lipid
4.3 Dietary Fiber
4.4 Polyphenols and Antioxidants
4.5 Antinutritional Factors
5 Application of Food Extrusion Technology
6 Mathematical Models Involved in Extrusion Processing
7 Notes
8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC) as an Emerging Food Processing Technology
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Processing Vessel
2.2 Connection System
2.2.1 Connection Types
2.3 Vacuum System
2.4 Airlock System
2.5 Steam Generator
2.6 Air Compressor and Airflow Generator
2.7 Cooling System
2.8 Extract Container
2.9 Footprint
2.9.1 DIC Device
2.9.2 Vacuum Tank
2.9.3 Pump
2.10 Data Logging Software
3 Methods
3.1 Extraction of Volatile and Non-volatile Compounds
3.1.1 Define the Operating Parameters
3.1.2 Place the Product in a Processing Vessel
3.1.3 Apply a First Vacuum Step (5 kPa) Just before Injecting the Steam
3.1.4 Connect the Steam Generator to the Treatment Vessel
3.1.5 Maintain the Product at High Saturated Vapor Pressure for a Short, Predetermined Period for Thermal and Moisture Homogen...
3.1.6 Instantaneously Open the Main Vacuum Valve
3.1.7 Injection of an Airflow to Reach the Atmospheric Level
3.1.8 Recovering of the Mixture from the Vacuum Tank
3.1.9 Multi-DIC Cycles
3.1.10 Complementary Operations
3.1.11 Energy Consumption
3.2 Drying, Texturing, Expanding, and/or Decontamination
3.2.1 Preparation Stage of the Product
3.2.2 Introduce the Product into the Processing Vessel
3.2.3 Thermal Treatment
3.2.4 Instant Pressure Drop
3.2.5 Establish the Atmospheric Pressure
3.2.6 Collect the Treated Product from the Treatment Vessel
4 Notes
References
Index