Cover
Half title
Series titles
Title
Copyright
Contents
List of figures
List of tables
Preface
About the author
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Scope
1.2.1 Antenna evolution
1.2.2 ESA benefits
1.2.3 Types of ESAs
1.3 Early ESA development
1.3.1 F-15 airborne radar
1.3.2 MESAR and the SAMPSON naval radar
1.3.3 Global Protection Against Limited Strike family of radars
1.3.3.1 AN/TPY-2
1.3.3.2 SBX
1.3.4 Concurrent computer development
1.4 ESA applications
1.4.1 Terrestrial ESAs
1.4.1.1 Communications
1.4.1.2 Radar
1.4.2 Communications and internet satellites
1.4.3 Radar satellites
1.4.3.1 Commercial radar satellites
1.4.3.2 Iceye compared to Seasat
1.4.4 Radio astronomy
References
2 Antenna principles
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Reciprocity
2.1.2 Uniqueness
2.1.3 Sampling and Fourier transforms
2.1.4 Beam shape and resolution
2.2 Electromagnetic radiation
2.3 Maxwell’s equations
2.3.1 Radiating/evanescent solutions
2.3.2 Boundary conditions
2.3.3 Analysis regions (exact to approximate)
2.3.3.1 Single four-lambda wide slot
2.4 Aperture shape
2.4.1 Rectangular aperture
2.4.1.1 Uniform distribution on an infinite ground plane
2.4.1.2 Power
2.4.1.3 Beamwidths
2.4.2 Circular aperture
Caveat
2.5 Discrete case
2.5.1 Element contribution
2.5.1.1 Fraunhofer approximation
2.5.2 Array factor
2.5.2.1 Pattern separability
2.5.2.2 Decomposition in X and Y
2.5.2.3 Pattern multiplication
2.5.2.4 16 element array = 4 × 4 element array
2.5.3 One-dimensional beamformation (boresight)
2.5.3.1 Maximum gain
2.5.3.2 Selected boresight case (M = 10)
2.6 Beam steering
2.6.1 Beam-steering geometric construction
2.6.2 One-dimensional beamformation (steered)
2.6.2.1 Scanned array factor
2.6.2.2 Selected steered (30°) case (M = 10)
2.6.3 Beam squint
2.6.3.1 Phase shift and bandwidth
2.6.3.2 Time delay
2.6.3.3 Time delay steering eliminates beam squint
2.7 Feed and beamforming networks
2.7.1 Feed networks
2.7.2 Beamforming networks
2.7.2.1 Butler matrix beamformer
2.7.2.2 Blass matrix beamformer
2.8 Subarray partitioning and recombination
2.8.1 Array partitioning
2.8.1.1 Beam squint revisited phase-steered 0.5 m array
2.8.1.2 Beam squint revisited phase-steered 4 m array
2.8.1.3 Eight time-delayed 0.5 m subarrays
2.8.2 Overlapped subarray
2.8.3 Scan constraint summary
References
3 Synthetic arrays
3.1 Synthetic aperture radar
3.1.1 SAR and Doppler
3.1.2 SAR and holography
3.2 Near-field scanning
3.3 Interferometry
References
4 Antenna figures of merit
4.1 Beam shape, sidelobes, and nulls
4.1.1 Amplitude weighting
4.1.2 Peak sidelobe ratio
4.1.3 Integrated sidelobe ratio
4.1.4 Two-way patterns
Circular arrays
Bistatic case
4.2 Efficiency and scattering
4.2.1 Aperture (utilization) efficiency
4.3 Resolution and bandwidth
4.4 Noise and dynamic range
4.4.1 Noise figure
4.4.2 Array noise figure model
4.4.3 Effect of aperture taper
4.4.4 Dynamic range (third-order intercept)
4.5 System performance equations
4.5.1 SAR equation (NESZ)
4.5.2 Radar range equation
4.5.3 Friis transmission equation
References
5 Mutual coupling effects
5.1 Definition
5.2 Problem
5.3 Parametric analysis
5.4 Patch element example
5.5 Waveguide element example
5.6 Dipole example
References
6 Errors and tolerances
6.1 Random and deterministic errors
6.2 Amplitude error
6.3 Phase error
6.4 Calibration
References
7 Grating lobes
7.1 Lattice attributes
7.2 Grating lobes location
Grating lobes in (u, v) space (rectangular lattice)
Grating lobes in (u. v) space (triangular lattice)
Scan volume comparison
7.3 Superresolution
7.4 Linear array examples
7.5 Grating lobe suppression
Reference
8 Thinned arrays
8.1 Random thinning
8.2 Effects of amplitude errors
8.3 Systematic thinning for amplitude taper
References
9 Beamwidth and sidelobes
9.1 Schelkunoff representation
Schelkunoff theorems
Single beam
Addition of missing root
Two slits separated by 5.5
9.2 Uniform weighting (unweighted)
Uniform example (M = 11)
9.3 Triangular weighting
Triangular example (M = 11)
9.4 Binomial weighting
Binomial example (M = 11)
9.5 Dolph–Chebyshev
Chebyshev polynomials
Aperture weight derivation
Result
Dolph–Chebyshev example (M = 11)
9.6 Taylor weighting
9.7 Beam performance comparisons
References
10 Beam shaping and spoiling
10.1 Fourier synthesis technique
Fourier transform synthesis
Fourier transform – first null
Fourier transform – second null
Fourier transform – third null
10.2 Woodward–Lawson synthesis
10.3 Phase-only beam broadening
Quadratic beam spoiling
Quadratic phase example
Beam spoiling and Taylor weighting
References
11 Reflector applications
11.1 Configurations
11.2 Single reflector
11.3 Dual reflector
11.4 Offset reflector
11.5 Feed design
11.6 Scan limitations
References
12 Design practice
12.1 Design tradeoffs
12.2 Architecture
Array partitioning
12.3 Design verification
References
13 Radiating elements
13.1 Requirements
13.2 Dipole radiating element
Coupled dipole arrays
7–21 GHz dual-polarized array
13.3 Horn and waveguide radiating elements
13.3.1 Horn feeds
13.3.2 Slotted waveguide
13.3.2.1 TerraSAR-X first generation
13.3.2.2 Next-generation TerraSAR-X
13.4 Flared notch radiating element
Square Kilometer Array application
13.5 Patch radiating element
References
14 T/R modules
14.1 Requirements
14.2 Module styles
14.2.1 Brick module configuration
14.2.1.1 European example
14.2.2 Tile module configuration
14.2.2.1 UK example
14.2.2.2 Module packaging
14.2.3 Planar configuration
14.3 Monolithic microwave integrated circuits
14.4 Gain control
14.5 Phase shifters and time delay units
14.5.1 Time delay units
14.5.2 Lumped element delay line
14.5.3 High-pass/low-pass phase shifter
14.5.3.1 Tee filter analysis
14.5.3.2 High-pass filter analysis
14.5.3.3 Input and output matching
14.5.4 Phase shifter benefits and limitations
14.6 Switches and isolators
References
15 Assembly, packaging, power, and thermal management
15.1 Assembly
15.2 Test
15.3 Installation
15.4 Packaging
15.5 Power
15.6 Thermal management
Thermal design
Thermal measurement
Array cooling
Radiative equilibrium
ESA temperature as a function of areal RF density
References
16 Technology base and cost
16.1 Government investment laid foundation
16.2 Industrial consolidation for military products
16.3 Commercial investment for consumer products
16.4 T/R module cost reduction since 1980
16.4.1 Congressional Budget Office report
Alternatives for Military Space Radar – A CBO Study [18, p. 51]
16.4.2 Manufacturing technology
Manufacturing Technology For Radar Transmit / Receive Modules [19]
Manufacturing Research and Development of X-Band Active Electronically Scanned Array Transmit/Receive Modules [20]
16.4.3 ESA prices
Boeing Company, Space & Security awarded $558,462,269 (November 30, 2016) [21]
Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation awarded $243,873,277 (May 31,2017) [22]
Raytheon Awarded $212 Million Contract for Terminal High Altitude Area Defense Radar [23]
EADS Delivers 5,000 T/R Modules for MEADS Radar, February 3, 2009 [25]
16.4.4 Commercial examples
References
17 ESAs in space
17.1 Iridium communications satellite
Beams in (u, v) space
Beams on globe
Beams on globe (detail)
Beams projected to ground
17.2 Radar satellites
17.2.1 SAR from space
17.2.1.1 Resolution
17.2.2 Radar satellite geometry and timing
17.2.3 Satellite SAR systems
17.2.4 RF power and thermal densities
17.3 X-band systems
17.3.1 TerraSAR-X
17.3.2 COSMO-SkyMed
17.3.2.1 Antenna beams in space
17.3.2.2 Antenna beams on globe
17.3.2.3 Antenna beams on globe (detail)
17.3.2.4 Antenna beams projected to ground
17.4 C-band systems
17.4.1 RadarSAT-2
17.4.2 Sentinel-1
17.5 L-band systems
17.5.1 SeaSAT
17.5.2 Space shuttle radars
17.5.3 Advanced land observing satellites
17.5.3.1 ALOS-2 PALSAR array
17.5.4 SAOCOM
References
18 ESA and reflector comparison
18.1 ESA-fed reflector design approach
18.2 Reference designs
18.2.1 DESDynI
18.2.2 NISAR
18.2.3 TanDEM-L
18.3 Offset reflector model
Feed pattern overilluminates reflector
Individual beam patterns principal planes cut
Transmit beam comprises sum of 24 feeds
24 element sum principal plane cuts
Reflector beam gain variation
Equivalent aperture sizes for reflector
Currents in reflector
18.4 ESA conceptual design
18.4.1 Array lattice
18.4.2 Array height
18.4.3 Beam weighting in elevation
18.4.4 Array length
18.4.5 Unthinned ESA
18.4.6 Subarray size
18.4.7 Power and noise figure
18.4.8 Beam projection
18.4.9 Subarray effects
18.4.10 Antenna pattern – boresight and steered
18.4.11 Azimuth cut steered in azimuth
18.4.12 Elevation cut steered in elevation
18.4.13 ESA beamwidth fairly constant with scan
18.4.14 Gain as a function of scan
18.5 Comparison
18.5.1 Array
18.5.2 Feeds
18.5.3 Launch constraints
18.6 Summary
References
Appendix A. Further reading
A.1 Books
A.2 Web based
References
Appendix B. Comments on MATLAB® code
B.1 Web resources
References
Appendix C. Geometry
C.1 Coordinate systems
C.2 Satellite geometry
C.2.1 Geometric relationships
C.2.2 Ground swath
Reference
Index