Electrodynamics and Optics (Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics)

✍ Scribed by Wolfgang Demtröder

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2019
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 458
• Edition: 1st ed. 2019
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This engaging text offers an accessible and clear treatment of the fundamentals of electromagnetics and optics, a core part of the standard undergraduate physics curriculum. Starting with static electric and magnetic fields, the book works through electromagnetic oscillations and the formation and propagation of electromagnetic waves, before moving on to geometric and wave optics, optical instrumentation and some discussion of new technologies in optics. The text is written from the experimental physics point of view, giving numerous real life examples and applications of devices. This highly motivating presentation deepens the knowledge in a very accessible way, carefully interweaving theory and practical applications.

Students are guided through the material with well-chosen examples and case studies, and helpful chapter summaries are provided together with numerous exercises and detailed solutions, all intended to motivate and develop a well-founded understanding of the subject matter.

✦ Table of Contents

Contents
1 Electrostatics
1.1 Electric Charges; Coulomb’s Law
1.1.1 Systems of Measurement
1.1.1.1 The International System of Units (SI)
1.1.1.2 The cgs System
1.1.1.3 Measurement of Charges
1.2 The Electrostatic Field
1.2.1 Electric Field-Strength
1.2.2 Electric Flux; Charges as Sources of Electric Fields
1.3 The Electrostatic Potential
1.3.1 Potential and Voltage
1.3.2 Potential Equation
1.3.3 Equipotential Surfaces
1.3.4 Special Distributions of Charges
1.3.4.1 Charged Hollow Spheres
1.3.4.2 Charged Solid Sphere
1.3.4.3 Charged Rod
1.3.4.4 Coaxial Cable
1.4 Electric Multipoles
1.4.1 The Electric Dipole
1.4.1.1 The Dipole in a Homogeneous Electric Field
1.4.1.2 The Dipole in an Inhomogeneous Electric Field
1.4.2 The Electric Quadrupole
1.4.3 Multipole Expansion
1.5 Conductors in an Electric Field
1.5.1 Influence
1.5.2 Capacitors
1.5.2.1 Parallel Plate Capacitor
1.5.2.2 Spherical Capacitor
1.5.2.3 Capacitors in Parallel and in Series
1.6 The Energy of the Electric Field
1.7 Dielectrics in Electric Fields
1.7.1 Dielectric Polarization
1.7.2 Polarization Charges
1.7.3 Equations of the Electrostatic Field in Matter
1.7.4 The Electric Field Energy in Dielectrics
1.8 Atomic Fundamentals of Charges and Electric Moments
1.8.1 The Millikan Experiment
1.8.2 Deflection of Electrons and Ions in Electric Fields
1.8.3 Molecular Dipole Moments
1.9 Electrostatics in Nature and Technology
1.9.1 Triboelectricity and Contact Potential
1.9.2 The Electric Field of Our Atmosphere
1.9.3 The Generation of Lightnings
1.9.4 Ball Lightnings
1.9.5 Electrostatic Air Filter
1.9.6 Electrostatic Deposition of Dye Coating
1.9.7 Electrostatic Copier and Printer
1.9.8 Electrostatic Charging and Neutralization
References
2 Electric Currents
2.1 Current as Transport of Charges
2.2 Electric Resistance and Ohm’s Law
2.2.1 Drift Velocity and Current Density
2.2.2 Ohm’s Law
2.2.3 Examples for the Application of Ohm’s Law
2.2.3.1 Charging of a Capacitor
2.2.3.2 Discharging a Capacitor
2.2.3.3 Voltage Divider
2.2.3.4 Resistance of a Flat Circular Ring of Thickness h
2.2.4 Temperature Dependence of the Electrical Resistance of Solids: Super-conductivity
2.2.4.1 Temperature Dependence of the Specific Resistance of Metals
2.2.4.2 Superconductivity
2.2.4.3 Conductivity of Semiconductors and Its Variation with Temperature
2.3 Electric Power and Joule’s Heating
2.4 Electric Networks; Kirchhoff’s Rules
2.4.1 Resistances in Series
2.4.2 Parallel Arrangement of Resistors
2.4.3 The Wheatstone Bridge
2.5 Methods to Measure Electric Currents and Voltages
2.5.1 Current Measuring Instruments
2.5.1.1 Hot Wire Ampere-Meter
2.5.1.2 Using Magnetic Effects to Measure Currents
2.5.1.3 Electrolytic Effects to Measure Currents
2.5.1.4 Measurement of Currents with a Static Voltmeter
2.5.2 Circuits with Ampere-Meters
2.5.3 Current Measuring Instruments Used to Measure Voltages
2.6 Ionic Conduction in Fluids
2.7 Current in Gases and Gas Discharges
2.7.1 Concentration of Charge Carriers
2.7.2 Creation of Charge Carriers
2.7.2.1 Thermal Ionization
2.7.2.2 Ionization by Collisions with Electrons
2.7.2.3 Photo-ionization
2.7.3 Current-Voltage-Characteristic of a Gas Discharge
2.7.4 Mechanism of Gas Discharges
2.7.5 Various Types of Gas Discharges
2.7.5.1 Glow Discharge
2.7.5.2 Arc Discharge
2.7.5.3 Spark Discharge
2.8 Current Sources
2.8.1 Internal Resistance of Current Sources
2.8.2 Galvanic Cells
2.8.3 Accumulators
2.8.4 Different Types of Batteries
2.8.5 Fuel Cells
2.9 Thermal Current Sources
2.9.1 Contact Potential
2.9.2 Seebeck Effect
2.9.3 Thermoelectric Voltage
2.9.4 Peltier-Effect
2.9.5 Thermo-electric Converters
2.9.6 Thomson Effect
References
3 Static Magnetic Fields
3.1 Permanent Magnets
3.2 Magnetic Fields of Stationary Currents
3.2.1 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Voltage
3.2.2 The Magnetic Field of a Straight Cylindrical Conductor
3.2.3 Magnetic Field in the Inside of a Long Solenoid
3.2.4 Vector Potential
3.2.5 The Magnetic Field of an Arbitrary Distribution of Electric Currents; Biot-Savart Law
3.2.5.1 The Magnetic Field of a Straight Conductor
3.2.5.2 The Magnetic Field of a Circular Current Loop
3.2.5.3 Helmholtz Coils
3.2.5.4 The Magnetic Field of a Cylindrical Solenoid with Finite Length
3.3 Forces on Moving Charges in Magnetic Fields
3.3.1 Forces on Conductors with Currents
3.3.2 Forces Between Two Parallel Conductors
3.3.3 Experimental Demonstration of the Lorentz Force
3.3.4 Electron- and Ion-Optics with Magnetic Fields
3.3.4.1 Focussing in Axial Magnetic Fields
3.3.4.2 Wien-Filter
3.3.4.3 Focussing by a Homogeneous Transverse Magnetic Field
3.3.5 Hall Effect
3.3.6 Barlow’s Wheel for the Demonstration of “Electron Friction” in Metals
3.4 Electromagnetic Fields and the Relativity Principle
3.4.1 The Electric Field of a Moving Charge
3.4.2 Relation Between Electric and Magnetic Field
3.4.3 Relativistic Transformation of Charge Density and Electric Current
3.4.4 Equations for the Transformation of Electromagnetic Fields
3.5 Matter in Magnetic Fields
3.5.1 Magnetic Dipoles
3.5.1.1 Moving Coil Instruments
3.5.1.2 Atomic Magnetic Moments
3.5.2 Magnetization and Magnetic Susceptibility
3.5.3 Diamagnetism
3.5.4 Paramagnetism
3.5.5 Ferromagnetism
3.5.6 Antiferromagnetism, Ferri-Magnets and Ferrites
3.5.7 Equations for the Magnetic Field in Matter
3.5.8 Electromagnets
3.6 The Magnetic Field of the Earth
References
4 Temporally Variable Fields
4.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction
4.2 Lenz’s Rule
4.2.1 Motion Initiated by Induction
4.2.2 Electromagnetic Catapult
4.2.3 Magnetic Levitation
4.2.4 Eddy Currents
4.3 Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance
4.3.1 Self Inductance
4.3.1.1 Switching on the Supply Voltage
4.3.1.2 Switching off the Supply Voltage
4.3.1.3 Ignition of Fluorescent Tubes
4.3.1.4 Self-inductance Coefficient of a Solenoid
4.3.1.5 Self-induction of a Double Circuit Line
4.3.2 Mutual Induction
4.3.2.1 Rectangular Conductor Loop in a Homogeneous Magnetic Field
4.3.2.2 Two Circular Loops with Different Relative Orientation
4.4 The Energy of the Magnetic Field
4.5 The Displacement Current
4.6 Maxwell’s Equations and Electrodynamic Potentials
References
5 Electrotechnical Applications
5.1 Electric Generators and Motors
5.1.1 DC-Machines
5.1.1.1 Series Wound Motor
5.1.1.2 The Shunt-Motor
5.1.1.3 The Compound Motor
5.1.2 AC-Generators
5.2 Alternating Current (AC)
5.3 Multiphase and Rotary Currents
5.4 AC-Current Circuits with Complex Resistors; Phasor Diagrams
5.4.1 AC-Circuit with Inductance
5.4.2 Circuit with Capacitance
5.4.3 General Case
5.5 Linear Networks; High- and Low Frequency Passes; Frequency Filters
5.5.1 High-Frequency Pass
5.5.2 Low Frequency Pass
5.5.3 Frequency Filters
5.6 Tranformers
5.6.1 Tranformer Without Load
5.6.2 Transformer with Load
5.6.2.1 Z = R
5.6.2.2 Z = iωL (Pure Inductive Load)
5.6.2.3 Z = 1/(iωC) (Pure Capacitive Load)
5.6.3 Applications
5.7 Impedance Matching in ac-Circuits
5.8 Rectification
5.8.1 One-way Rectification
5.8.2 Two-way Rectification
5.8.3 Bridge Rectifying Circuit
5.8.4 Cascade Circuit
5.9 Electron Tubes
5.9.1 Vacuum Diodes
5.9.2 Triodes
References
6 Electromagnetic Oscillations and the Origin of Electromagnetic Waves
6.1 The Electromagnetic Oscillating Circuit
6.1.1 Damped Electromagnetic Oscillations
6.1.1.1 Overdamped Case
6.1.1.2 Aperiodic Limiting Case
6.1.1.3 Damped Oscillation
6.1.2 Forced Oscillations
6.2 Coupled Oscillation Circuits
6.3 Generation of Undamped Oscillations
6.4 Open Oscillating Circuits; Hertzian Dipole
6.4.1 Experimental Realization of a Transmitter
6.4.2 The Electromagnetic Field of the Oscillating Dipole
6.5 The Emitted Radiation of the Oscillating Dipole
6.5.1 The Emitted Power
6.5.2 Radiation Damping
6.5.3 Frequency Spectrum of the Emitted Radiation
6.5.4 The Radiation of an Accelerated Charge
6.5.4.1 Bremsstrahlung of X-Rays
6.5.4.2 Synchrotron Radiation
References
7 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum
7.1 The Wave Equation
7.2 Electro-magnetic Plane Waves
7.3 Periodic Waves
7.4 Polarization of Electromagnetic Waves
7.4.1 Linear Polarized Waves
7.4.2 Circular Polarization
7.4.3 Elliptical Polarized Waves
7.4.4 Unpolarized Waves
7.5 The Magnetic Field of Electromagnetic Waves
7.6 Transport of Energy and Momentum by Electromagnetic Waves
7.7 Measurement of the Speed of Light
7.7.1 The Astronomical Method of Ole Roemer
7.7.2 Cogwheel Method by Fizeau
7.7.3 The Rotating Mirror of Foucault
7.7.4 Phase Method
7.7.5 Determination of c by Measurements of Frequency and Wavelength
7.8 Standing Electromagnetic Waves
7.8.1 Standing Waves in One Direction
7.8.2 Three-Dimensional Standing Waves; Cavity Resonators
7.9 Waves in Wave Guides and Cables
7.9.1 Waves Between Two Plane Parallel Conductors
7.9.2 Wave Guides with Rectangular Cross Section
7.9.3 Waves Along Wires; Lecher Line; Coaxial Cable
7.9.3.1 Lecher-Line
7.9.3.2 Coaxial Cables
7.9.4 Examples of Wave Guides
7.9.4.1 Radiowaves in the Atmosphere of the Earth
7.9.4.2 Microwave Guides
7.9.4.3 Wave Guides for Light
7.10 The Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
References
8 Electromagnetic Waves in Matter
8.1 Refractive Index
8.1.1 Macroscopic Description
8.1.2 Microscopic Model
8.2 Absorption and Dispersion
8.3 Wave Equation of Electromagnetic Waves in Matter
8.3.1 Waves in Nonconductive Media
8.3.2 Waves in Conducting Media
8.3.3 The Energy of Electromagnetic Waves in Matter
8.4 Electromagnetic Waves at the Interface Between Two Media
8.4.1 Boundary Conditions for Electric and Magnetic Field
8.4.2 Laws for Reflection and Refraction
8.4.3 Amplitude and Polarization of Reflected and Refracted Waves
8.4.4 Reflectivity and Transmittance at the Interface
8.4.5 Brewster Angle
8.4.6 Total Internal Reflection
8.4.7 Change of the Polarization for Inclined Incidence
8.4.8 Phase Shift at the Reflection
8.4.9 Reflection at Metal Surfaces
8.4.10 Media with Negative Refractive Index
8.4.11 Photonic Crystals
8.5 Light Propagation in Anisotropic Media; Birefringence
8.5.1 Propagation of Light Waves in Anisotropic Media
8.5.2 Refractive Index Ellipsoid
8.5.3 Birefringence
8.6 Generation and Application of Polarized Light
8.6.1 Generation of Polarized Light by Reflection
8.6.2 Generation of Polarized Light at the Passage Through Dichroitic Crystals
8.6.3 Birefringent Polarizers
8.6.4 Polarization Turners
8.6.5 Optical Activity
8.6.6 Stress Birefringence
8.7 Nonlinear Optics
8.7.1 Optical Frequency Doubling
8.7.2 Phase Matching
8.7.3 Optical Frequency Mixing
8.7.4 Generation of Higher Harmonics
References
9 Geometrical Optics
9.1 Basic Axioms of Geometrical Optics
9.2 Optical Imaging
9.3 Concave Mirrors
9.4 Prisms
9.5 Lenses
9.5.1 Refraction at a Curved Surface
9.5.2 Thin Lenses
9.5.3 Thick Lenses
9.5.4 System of Lenses
9.5.5 Zoom-Lens Systems
9.5.6 Lens Aberrations
9.5.6.1 Chromatic Aberration
9.5.6.2 Spherical Aberration
9.5.6.3 Aspherical Lenses
9.5.6.4 Coma
9.5.6.5 Astigmatism
9.5.6.6 Image Field Curvature and Distortion
9.5.7 The Aplanatic Imaging
9.6 Matrix Methods of Geometrical Optics
9.6.1 The Translation Matrix
9.6.2 The Refraction Matrix
9.6.3 Reflection Matrix
9.6.4 Transformation Matrix of a Lens
9.6.5 Imaging Matrix
9.6.6 Matrices of Lens Systems
9.6.7 Jones Vectors
9.7 Geometrical Optics of the Atmosphere
9.7.1 Deflection of Light Rays in the Atmosphere
9.7.2 Apparent Size of the Rising Moon
9.7.3 Fata Morgana
9.7.4 Rainbows
References
10 Interference, Diffraction and Scattering
10.1 Temporal and Spatial Coherence
10.2 Generation and Superposition of Coherent Waves
10.3 Experimental Realization of Two-Beam Interference
10.3.1 Fresnel’s Mirror Arrangement
10.3.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
10.3.3 Interference at a Plane-Parallel Plate
10.3.4 Michelson Interferometer
10.3.5 The Michelson-Morley Experiment
10.3.6 Sagnac Interferometer
10.3.7 Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
10.4 Multiple Beam Interference
10.4.1 Fabry-Perot-Interferometer
10.4.2 Dielectric Mirrors
10.4.3 Anti-reflection Coating
10.4.4 Applications of Interferometers
10.5 Diffraction
10.5.1 Diffraction as Interference Phenomenon
10.5.2 Diffraction by a Slit
10.5.3 Diffraction Gratings
10.6 Fraunhofer- and Fresnel-Diffraction
10.6.1 Fresnel Zones
10.6.2 Fresnel’s Zone Plate
10.7 General Treatment of Diffraction
10.7.1 The Diffraction Integral
10.7.2 Fresnel- and Fraunhofer Diffraction by a Slit
10.7.3 Fresnel Diffraction at an Edge
10.7.4 Fresnel Diffraction at a Circular Aperture
10.7.5 Babinet’s Theorem
10.8 Fourier Representation of Diffraction
10.8.1 Fourier-Transformation
10.8.2 Application to Diffraction Problems
10.9 Light Scattering
10.9.1 Coherent and Incoherent Scattering
10.9.2 Scattering Cross Sections
10.9.3 Scattering by Micro-particles; Mie-Scattering
10.10 Optical Phenomena in Our Atmosphere
10.10.1 Light Scattering in Our Atmosphere
10.10.1.1 Why Is the Unclouded Sky Blue?
10.10.1.2 Why Is the Sky Light Partially Polarized?
10.10.1.3 Why Appears the Rising and Setting Sun Reddish?
10.10.1.4 Why Appear Faraway Mountains Blue?
10.10.2 Halo Phenomena
10.10.3 Aureole Around the Moon
10.10.4 Glory Phenomena
References
11 Optical Instruments
11.1 The Human Eye
11.1.1 The Bio-physical Structure of the Eye
11.1.2 Short- and Far-Sightedness
11.1.3 Spatial Resolution and Sensitivity of the Eye
11.2 Magnifying Optical Instruments
11.2.1 Magnifying Glass
11.2.2 The Microscope
11.2.3 Telescopes
11.3 The Importance of Diffraction in Optical Instruments
11.3.1 Angular Resolution of Telescopes
11.3.2 Resolving Power of the Human Eye
11.3.3 Resolving Power of the Microscope
11.3.4 Abbe’s Theorem of the Formation of Images
11.3.5 Surpassing of the Classical Diffraction Limit
11.4 The Luminosity of Optical Instruments
11.5 Spectrographs and Monochromators
11.5.1 Prism Spectrographs
11.5.2 Grating Monochromator
11.5.3 The Spectral Resolution of Spectrographs
11.5.4 A General Expression for the Spectral Resolution
References
12 New Techniques in Optics
12.1 Confocal Microscopy
12.2 Optical Near Field Microscopy
12.3 Active and Adaptive Optics
12.3.1 Active Optics
12.3.2 Adaptive Optics
12.3.3 Interferometry in Astronomy
12.4 Holography
12.4.1 Recording of a Hologram
12.4.2 The Reconstruction of the Wave Field
12.4.3 White Light Holography
12.4.4 Holographic Interferometry
12.4.5 Applications of Holography
12.5 Fourier-Optics
12.5.1 The Lens as Fourier-Imaging Component
12.5.1.1 Point-like Light Source
12.5.1.2 Two Point-like Sources
12.5.1.3 Optical Line Grating
12.5.2 Optical Filtering
12.5.2.1 Low Pass Filter
12.5.2.2 High Pass Filter
12.5.3 Optical Pattern Recognition
12.6 Micro-Optics
12.6.1 Diffractive Optics
12.6.2 Fresnel Lenses and Lens Arrays
12.6.3 Production Techniques of Diffractive Optical Elements
12.6.4 Refractive Micro-Optics
12.7 Optical Waveguides and Integrated Optics
12.7.1 Light Propagation in Optical Waveguides
12.7.2 Modulation of Light
12.7.3 Coupling Between Adjacent Waveguides
12.7.4 Integrated Optical Elements
12.8 Optical Fibers
12.8.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers
12.8.2 Absorption in Optical Fibers
12.8.3 Optical Pulse Propagation in Fibers
12.8.4 Nonlinear Pulse Propagation; Solitons
12.9 Optical Communication
References
Appendix_1
Appendix_2
Appendix_3
Appendix_4
Appendix_5
Appendix_6
Appendix_7
Appendix_8
Appendix_9
Appendix_10
Appendix_11
Appendix_12
Appendix_13
Appendix_14
Appendix_15
Appendix_16
Appendix_17
Index