Disinfection by-Products in Drinking Water: Current Issues

✍ Scribed by M. Fielding, M. Farrimond

• Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry
• Year: 1999
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 238
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

It is 25 years since the discovery that potentially harmful chemical by-products are generated by the disinfection of drinking water. Since then, disinfection by-products (DBPs) have had a significant impact on drinking water standards, treatment processes and monitoring. Regulators and water suppliers must find a balance between the need to prevent microbial contamination, and the desire to control the levels of DBPs in the water we drink. Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water: Current Issues brings together contributions from regulators, researchers and water suppliers from Europe and North America to discuss the current situation and identify the main issues associated with reaching a cost-effective balance between microbial and chemical risks. Overviews of the latest research are presented alongside case studies of practical approaches taken by water companies and regulators on both sides of the Atlantic. Contributions are grouped into sections covering: DBP formation and occurrence; advances in analysis and monitoring; standards and regulation; balancing chemical and microbial risk; and control methods for DBPs. A final chapter pulls these strands together to provide a view of the way forward. Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water: Current Issues is a unique collection of the views of key people, and as such will be essential reading for all those with an interest in this complex problem.

✦ Table of Contents

Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water (1999)
......Page 1
ISBN: 0854047786......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
--> Contents......Page 8
Introduction......Page 12
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 14
2 THE CONTENTS OF THE PROPOSED DRINKING WATER DIRECTIVE......Page 16
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 20
2 REGULATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT’S......Page 21
4 BY-PRODUCTS RESEARCH......Page 23
DBP Formation and Occurrence in Treatment and Distribution......Page 32
2 CHLORINATION BY-PRODUCTS......Page 34
2.2 Strategy 1977-1983: restriction of prechlorination and precursor removal......Page 35
3.2 Strategy 1989-now: protozoa inactivation and bromate control......Page 38
4 PERSPECTIVE......Page 39
REFERENCES......Page 41
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 42
2 EXPERIMENTAL......Page 43
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 44
4 SUMMARY......Page 54
References......Page 55
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 57
2.3 GC/MS and GC/IR Analyses......Page 58
3.1 Ozone......Page 59
3.2 Ozone/Chlorine and Ozone/Chlorarnine......Page 61
3.4 Comparison of DBPs from Different Disinfectants......Page 63
References......Page 64
1.1 Formation of Aldehydes......Page 65
1.2 Effect of UV irradiation on trihalomethane formation potential and the formation of haloacetic acids......Page 66
1.3 Irradiation of unsaturated chlorinated solvents......Page 68
1.5 Investigation into the possible formation of nitrogen-containing organics on irradiation of water containing nitrate......Page 70
References......Page 72
1.2 Ozone for Removal of THMs......Page 73
2.2 Demonstration of THM Precursor Material Removal Over Three Year Period......Page 75
2.3 THM Concentrations in Distribution......Page 77
3.1 Summary of Findings......Page 78
3.2 Proposed Future Work......Page 79
References......Page 80
2 TOMNAVOULIN......Page 81
4 TOTAL TRIHALOMETHANE FORMATION POTENTIAL TESTS (TTFP)......Page 85
6 CONCLUSION......Page 87
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......Page 88
1.1 Previous Chlorination Practice......Page 89
1.3 Options Considered......Page 90
2.2 Laboratory Investigations......Page 91
3 IMPLEMENTATION OF CHLORAMINATION......Page 92
3.3 Operational Considerations over the First Year of the Trial......Page 93
4.3 Nitrite Formation......Page 94
5.1 Microbiological Activity......Page 96
5.2 Customer Reaction......Page 97
References......Page 98
Advances in Analysis and Monitoring......Page 100
2.1 Optimisation of the ICP-MS System......Page 102
2.2 Determination of Bromine Species by ICP-MS......Page 103
2.3 Coupling of the ICP-MS to an Ion Chromatographic System......Page 104
2.4 Performance Data......Page 105
4 COMPARISON OF THE IC/ICP-MS AND THE IC/CD METHOD......Page 106
Acknowledgements......Page 108
2 PRESENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN PROJECT......Page 109
4.1 Reagents......Page 110
5.1 Development of the Field Method......Page 111
5.2 Development of an Alternative Laboratory Method......Page 114
6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 117
References......Page 118
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 119
2 ON-LINE MONITORING REQUIREMENTS......Page 121
3.1 DOC/Bromide THM Matrix Study......Page 122
3.2 Total THM formation potential of 5050 Trent : Derwent water......Page 125
4 DISCUSSION......Page 127
References......Page 128
Standards and Regulation......Page 130
2.1 Regulations in the United States......Page 132
3.1 Background......Page 133
3.2 1994 Proposed D/DBP Rule......Page 135
5.1 1996 SDWA Amendments......Page 137
5.2 1997 Federal Advisory Committee and NODAs......Page 138
5.4 Stage 2 DDBP Rule Development......Page 139
References......Page 141
2.2 Disinfection and DBPs......Page 142
2.3 Implementation of the Directive in Member States......Page 143
3.2 Guidelines for DBPs......Page 146
3.3 Review of WHO Guidelines......Page 147
4.2 Commission’s study of trihalomethanes......Page 148
4.4 Member States Common Position......Page 149
References......Page 150
2 THE NEW DRINKING WATER DIRECTIVE......Page 151
3 DISINFECTION PRACTICE IN EUROPE......Page 152
4.3 Which Particular DBP to Control?......Page 153
4.5 Compliance Interpretation......Page 154
5 A CUSTOMER PERSPECTIVE......Page 155
References......Page 156
2 PROPOSED NEW STANDARDS FOR DBPs......Page 157
3.2 Bromate......Page 158
4.1 Upland sources......Page 159
5.1 The options available for THM reduction......Page 162
7.2 Surface water sources......Page 164
REFERENCES......Page 165
Balancing Chemical and Microbiological Risk......Page 166
2.1 Cancer Epidemiology......Page 168
2.2 Toxicological Data......Page 169
3.1 Health Effects......Page 171
4.1 Health Effects in Man......Page 172
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 173
References......Page 174
2 THE MECHANISM OF CARCINOGEN ACTION......Page 176
4 RISK ASSESSMENT OF BROMATE DEPENDS ON ITS MECHANISM OF ACTION......Page 177
5 DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS IN THE ACTION OF BROMATE......Page 178
REFERENCES......Page 179
1.1 Current MRA models for drinking water- How accurate does risk assessment need to be?......Page 181
2.2 Variation in pathogen densities between and within large volume samples......Page 182
2.3 Effect of treatment on the spatial distribution of micro-organisms......Page 183
3 SIMULATING CRYPTOSPORIDIUM EXPOSURES UNDER OUTBREAK CONDITIONS......Page 185
3.1 Ignoring the variation would predict that more consumers are exposed, albeit to lower doses......Page 186
4 DOSE-RESPONSE CURVES FOR C. PARVUM - ESTIMATING THE RISK FROM A SINGLE OOCYST......Page 187
5 THE IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION IN PATHOGEN EXPOSURES IN RISK ASSESSMENT.......Page 188
References......Page 189
Control of DBPs......Page 192
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 194
2.1 Organics Removal - Ashford Common......Page 195
3.1 Organics Removal......Page 196
3.2 Trihalomethane Removal......Page 198
REFERENCES......Page 200
1.1 Hydrological Setting and Operation of Wellfield No.3......Page 202
1.2 Water Quality and Current Treatment Method......Page 203
2.1 Treatment Options Considered......Page 205
2.2 Enhanced Aquifer Filtration......Page 206
2.3 Physico-Chemical Treatment......Page 207
3 DESIGN OF SELECTED TREATMENT WORKS......Page 208
References......Page 209
2.1 Bromide Level......Page 210
2.5 pH......Page 211
3 PUBLISHED BROMATE FORMATION MODELS......Page 212
4 DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLE BROMATE FORMATION MODEL......Page 213
5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA VARIABILITY TO ASSESS PERCENTAGE COMPLIANCE TO A GIVEN LIMIT......Page 214
5.1 Limitations of this Analysis......Page 215
6 IMPLICATIONS OF RISK OF BROMATE FORMATION ON OZONE CONTACTOR DESIGN......Page 216
References......Page 217
2 THE LEIDUIN PLANT: PROCESS SCHEME AND CHARACTERISTICS......Page 219
3 THE THEORETICAL APPROACH......Page 220
4.1 The treated water......Page 221
4.2 Changes during transport and distribution......Page 223
5 NEW DEVELOPMENTS......Page 225
6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 226
References......Page 227
Concluding Remarks......Page 228
DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS - THE WAY FORWARD SUMMARY OF CONFERENCE......Page 230
Subject Index......Page 233