Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out (Biomedical Engineering)

✍ Scribed by Thomas L. Szabo

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2013
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 801
• Edition: 2
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging provides a unified description of the physical principles of ultrasound imaging, signal processing, systems and measurements. This comprehensive reference is a core resource for both graduate students and engineers in medical ultrasound research and design. With continuing rapid technological development of ultrasound in medical diagnosis, it is a critical subject for biomedical engineers, clinical and healthcare engineers and practitioners, medical physicists, and related professionals in the fields of signal and image processing.

The book contains 17 new and updated chapters covering the fundamentals and latest advances in the area, and includes four appendices, 450 figures, and almost 1,500 references. In addition to the continual influx of readers entering the field of ultrasound worldwide who need the broad grounding in the core technologies of ultrasound, this book provides those already working in these areas with clear and comprehensive expositions of these key new topics as well as introductions to state-of-the-art innovations in this field.

• Enables practicing engineers, students and clinical professionals to understand the essential physics and signal processing techniques behind modern imaging systems as well as introducing the latest developments that will shape medical ultrasound in the future
• Suitable for both newcomers and experienced readers, the practical, progressively organized applied approach is supported by hands-on MATLAB code and worked examples that enable readers to understand the principles underlying diagnostic and therapeutic ultrasound
• Covers the new important developments in the use of medical ultrasound: elastography and high-intensity therapeutic ultrasound. Many new developments are comprehensively reviewed and explained, including aberration correction, acoustic measurements, acoustic radiation force imaging, alternate imaging architectures, bioeffects: diagnostic to therapeutic, Fourier transform imaging, multimode imaging, plane wave compounding, research platforms, synthetic aperture, vector Doppler, transient shear wave elastography, ultrafast imaging and Doppler, functional ultrasound and viscoelastic models

✦ Table of Contents

Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Early Beginnings
1.1.2 Sonar
1.2 Echo Ranging of the Body
1.3 Ultrasound Portrait Photographers
1.4 Ultrasound Cinematographers
1.5 Modern Ultrasound Imaging Developments
1.6 Enabling Technologies for Ultrasound Imaging
1.7 Ultrasound Imaging Safety
1.8 Ultrasound and Other Diagnostic Imaging Modalities
1.8.1 Imaging Modalities Compared
1.8.2 Ultrasound
1.8.3 Plane X-rays
1.8.4 Computed Tomography Imaging
1.8.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Applications
1.8.6 Magnetoencephalography
1.8.7 Positron Emission Tomography
1.9 Contrast Agents
1.9.1 Computed Tomography Agents
1.9.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Agents
1.9.3 Ultrasound Agents
1.10 Comparison of Imaging Modalities
1.10.1 Image Fusion
1.10.2 Multi-wave and Interactive Imaging
1.11 Conclusion
References
Bibliography
2 Overview
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fourier Transform
2.2.1 Introduction to the Fourier Transform
2.2.2 Fourier Transform Relationships
2.3 Building Blocks
2.3.1 Time and Frequency Building Blocks
2.3.2 Space Wave Number Building Block
Spatial Transforms
Spatial Transform of a Line Source
Spatial Frequency Building Blocks
2.4 Central Diagram
References
3 Acoustic Wave Propagation
3.1 Introduction to Waves
3.2 Plane Waves in Liquids and Solids
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Wave Equations for Fluids
3.2.3 One-dimensional Wave Hitting a Boundary
3.2.4 ABCD Matrices
3.2.5 Oblique Waves at a Liquid–Liquid Boundary
3.3 Elastic Waves in Solids
3.3.1 Types of Waves
3.3.2 Equivalent Networks for Waves
3.3.3 Waves at a Fluid–Solid Boundary
3.4 Elastic Wave Equations
3.5 Conclusion
References
Bibliography
4 Attenuation
4.1 Losses in Tissues
4.1.1 Losses in Exponential Terms and in Decibels
4.1.2 Tissue Data
4.2 Losses in Both Frequency and Time Domains
4.2.1 The Material Transfer Function
4.2.2 The Material Impulse Response Function
4.3 Tissue Models
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 The Time Causal Model
4.4 Pulses in Lossy Media
4.4.1 Scaling of the Material Impulse Response Function
4.4.2 Pulse Propagation: Interactive Effects in Time and Frequency
4.4.3 Pulse Echo Propagation
4.5 Modified Hooke’s Laws and Tissue Models for Viscoelastic Media
4.5.1 Voigt Model
4.5.2 Time Causal Model
4.5.3 Maxwell Model
4.5.4 Thermoviscous Relaxation Model
4.5.5 Multiple Relaxation Model
4.5.6 Zener Model
4.5.7 Fractional Zener and Kelvin–Voigt Fractional Derivative Models
4.6 Wave Equations for Tissues
4.6.1 Voigt Model Wave Equation
4.6.2 Time Causal Model Wave Equations
4.6.3 Time Causal Model Wave Equations in Fractional Calculus Form
4.7 Discussion
4.7.1 First Principles
4.7.2 Power Law Wave Equation Implementations
4.7.3 Transient Solutions for Power Law Media
4.7.4 Green Functions for Power Law Media
4.7.5 Shear Waves in Power Law Media
4.8 Penetration and Time Gain Compensation
References
5 Transducers
5.1 Introduction to Transducers
5.1.1 Transducer Basics
5.1.2 Transducer Electrical Impedance
5.1.3 Summary
5.2 Resonant Modes of Transducers
5.2.1 Resonant Crystal Geometries
5.2.2 Determination of Electroacoustic Coupling Constants
5.2.3 Array Construction
5.3 Equivalent Circuit Transducer Model
5.3.1 KLM Equivalent Circuit Model
5.3.2 Organization of Overall Transducer Model
5.3.3 Transducer at Resonance
5.4 Transducer Design Considerations
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Insertion Loss and Transducer Loss
5.4.3 Electrical Loss
5.4.4 Acoustical Loss
5.4.5 Matching Layers
5.4.6 Design Examples
5.5 Transducer Pulses
5.5.1 Standard Pulse and Spectral Measurements
5.6 Equations for Piezoelectric Media
5.7 Piezoelectric Materials
5.7.1 Introduction
5.7.2 Normal Polycrystalline Piezoelectric Ceramics
5.7.3 Relaxor Piezoelectric Ceramics
5.7.4 Single-crystal Ferroelectrics
5.7.5 Piezoelectric Organic Polymers
5.7.6 Domain-engineered Ferroelectric Single Crystals
5.7.7 Composite Materials
5.7.8 Piezoelectric Gels
5.7.9 Lead-free Piezoelectrics
5.8 Comparison of Piezoelectric Materials
5.9 Transducer Advanced Topics
5.9.1 Internal Transducer Losses
5.9.2 Trends in Transducer Modeling
5.9.3 Matrix or 2D Arrays
5.9.4 CMUT Arrays
5.9.5 High-Frequency Transducers
References
Bibliography
6 Beamforming
6.1 What is Diffraction?
6.2 Fresnel Approximation of Spatial Diffraction Integral
6.3 Rectangular Aperture
6.4 Apodization
6.5 Circular Apertures
6.5.1 Near and Far Fields for Circular Apertures
6.5.2 Universal Relations for Circular Apertures
6.6 Focusing
6.6.1 Introduction to Focusing
6.6.2 Derivation of Focusing Relations
6.6.3 Zones for Focusing Transducers
6.6.4 Focusing Gain and Peak Pressure Values
6.6.5 Depth of Field
6.6.6 Scaling of Beams
6.6.7 Focusing Summary
6.7 Angular Spectrum of Waves
6.8 Diffraction Loss
6.9 Limited Diffraction Beams
6.10 Holey Focusing Transducers
References
Bibliography
7 Array Beamforming
7.1 Why Arrays?
7.2 Diffraction in the Time Domain
7.3 Circular Radiators in the Time Domain
7.4 Arrays
7.4.1 The Array Element
7.4.2 Pulsed Excitation of an Element
7.4.3 Array Sampling and Grating Lobes
7.4.4 Element Factors
7.4.5 Beam Steering
7.4.6 Focusing and Steering
7.5 Pulse–Echo Beamforming
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Beam-shaping
7.5.3 Pulse–Echo Focusing
7.6 Two-dimensional Arrays
7.7 Baffled
7.8 Computational Diffraction Methods
7.9 Nonideal Array Performance
7.9.1 Quantization and Defective Elements
7.9.2 Sparse and Thinned Arrays
7.9.3 1.5-dimensional Arrays
7.9.4 Diffraction in Absorbing Media
7.9.5 Body Effects
7.10 Conformable and Deformable Arrays
References
Bibliography
8 Wave Scattering and Imaging
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Scattering of Objects
8.2.1 Specular Scattering
8.2.2 Diffusive Scattering
8.2.3 Diffractive Scattering
Frequency Domain Born Approximation
8.2.4 Scattering Summary
8.3 Role of Transducer Diffraction and Focusing
8.3.1 Time Domain Born Approximation Including Diffraction
8.4 Role of Imaging
8.4.1 Imaging Process
8.4.2 A Different Attitude
8.4.3 Speckle
8.4.4 Contrast
8.4.5 Van Cittert–Zernike Theorem
8.4.6 Speckle Reduction
8.4.7 Speckle Tracking
References
Bibliography
9 Scattering From Tissue and Tissue Characterization
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Scattering from Tissues
9.3 Properties of and Propagation in Heterogeneous Tissue
9.3.1 Properties of Heterogeneous Tissue
9.3.2 Propagation in Heterogeneous Tissue
9.4 Array Processing of Scattered Pulse–Echo Signals
9.5 Tissue Characterization Methods
9.5.1 Introduction
9.5.2 Fundamentals
9.5.3 Backscattering Definitions
9.5.4 The Classic Formulation
9.5.5 Extensions of the Original Backscatter Methodology
9.5.6 Integrated Backscatter
9.5.7 Spectral Features
9.5.8 Backscattering Comparisons
9.6 Applications of Tissue Characterization
9.6.1 Radiology and Ophthalmic Applications
9.6.2 Cardiac Applications
9.6.3 High-Frequency Applications
9.6.4 Texture Analysis and Image Analysis
9.7 Aberration Correction
9.7.1 General Methods
9.7.2 Time Reversal
9.7.3 Focusing through the Skull
9.8 Wave Equations for Tissue
References
Bibliography
10 Imaging Systems and Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Trends in Imaging Systems
10.2.1 General Commercial Systems
10.2.2 New Developments
10.3 Major Controls
10.4 Block Diagram
10.5 Major Modes
10.6 Clinical Applications
10.7 Transducers and Image Formats
10.7.1 Image Formats and Transducer Types
10.7.2 Transducer Implementations
10.7.3 Multidimensional Arrays
10.8 Front End
10.8.1 Transmitters
10.8.2 Receivers
10.9 Scanner
10.9.1 Beamformers
10.9.2 Signal Processors
Bandpass filters
Matched filters
10.10 Back End
10.10.1 Scan Conversion and Display
10.10.2 Computation and Software
10.11 Advanced Signal Processing
10.11.1 High-end Imaging Systems
10.11.2 Attenuation and Diffraction Amplitude Compensation
10.11.3 Frequency Compounding
10.11.4 Spatial Compounding
10.11.5 Real-time Border Detection
10.11.6 Three- and Four-dimensional Imaging
10.12 Alternate Imaging System Architectures
10.12.1 Introduction
10.12.2 Plane-wave Compounding
10.12.3 Fourier Transform Imaging
10.12.4 Synthetic Aperture Imaging
10.12.5 Parallel Beamforming Archictectures
10.12.6 Ultrasound Research Systems
Verasonics System
Ultrasonix imaging system
Visualsonics imaging systems
Other research systems
References
Bibliography
11 Doppler Modes
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Doppler Effect
11.3 Scattering from Flowing Blood in Vessels
11.4 Continuous-Wave Doppler
11.5 Pulsed-Wave Doppler
11.5.1 Introduction
11.5.2 Range-Gated Pulsed Doppler Processing
11.5.3 Quadrature Sampling
11.5.4 Final Filtering and Display
11.5.5 Pulsed Doppler Examples
11.6 Comparison of Pulsed- and Continuous-Wave Doppler
11.7 Ultrasound Color Flow Imaging
11.7.1 Introduction
11.7.2 Phase-Based Mean Frequency Estimators
11.7.3 Time-Domain-Based Estimators
11.7.4 Implementations of Color Flow Imaging
11.7.5 Power Doppler and Other Variants of Color Flow Imaging
11.7.6 Previous Developments
11.8 Non-Doppler Visualization of Blood Flow
11.9 Doppler Revisited
11.9.1 Doppler Methods Reviewed
11.9.2 Doppler Methods Re-Examined
11.10 Vector Doppler
11.10.1 Introduction
11.10.2 Transverse Oscillation Method
11.10.3 Synthetic Aperture Flow Imaging
11.10.4 Plane-Wave Flow Imaging
Introduction
Plane Wave Excitation for Vector Doppler Imaging
Plane-Wave Compounding for Doppler Imaging
Plane-Wave Investigations for Doppler Imaging
11.11 Functional Ultrasound Imaging
References
Bibliography
12 Nonlinear Acoustics and Imaging
12.1 Introduction
12.2 What is Nonlinear Propagation?
12.3 Propagation in a Nonlinear Medium with Losses
12.4 Propagation of Beams in Nonlinear Media
12.5 Harmonic Imaging
12.5.1 Introduction
12.5.2 Resolution
12.5.3 Focusing
12.5.4 Natural Apodization
12.5.5 Body-Wall Effects
12.5.6 Absorption Effects
12.5.7 Harmonic Pulse Echo
12.6 Harmonic Signal Processing
12.7 Nonlinear Wave Equations and Simulation Models
12.8 Acoustic Radiation Forces and Streaming
12.8.1 Introduction
12.8.2 Plane Understanding
12.8.3 Particle Manipulation
12.8.4 Acoustic Radiation Forces in Tissue
12.8.5 Acoustic Streaming
12.8.6 Summary
References
Bibliography
13 Ultrasonic Exposimetry and Acoustic Measurements
13.1 Introduction to Measurements
13.2 Materials Characterization
13.2.1 Transducer Materials
13.2.2 Tissue Measurements
13.2.3 Measurement Considerations
13.3 Transducers
13.3.1 Impedance
13.3.2 Pulse–Echo Testing
13.3.3 Beam Plots
13.4 Acoustic Output Measurements
13.4.1 Introduction
13.4.2 Hydrophone Characteristics
13.4.3 Hydrophone Measurements of Absolute Pressure and Derived Parameters
13.4.4 Optical Hydrophones
13.4.5 Developments in Hydrophone Calibration
13.4.6 Force Balance Measurements of Absolute Power
13.4.7 Measurements of Temperature Rise
13.4.8 Field Measurements Revisited: Projection Methods
13.5 Performance Measurements
13.6 High-intensity Acoustic Measurements
13.6.1 HIFU Field Measurements
13.6.2 HIFU Power Measurements
13.6.3 HIFU Thermal Measurements
13.7 Thought Experiments
References
Bibliography
14 Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Microbubble as Linear Resonator
14.3 Microbubble as Nonlinear Resonator
14.3.1 Harmonic Response
14.3.2 Subharmonic Response
14.4 Cavitation and Bubble Destruction
14.4.1 Rectified Diffusion
14.4.2 Cavitation
14.4.3 Mechanical Index
14.5 Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.5.1 Basic Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.5.2 Acoustic Excitation of Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.5.3 Mechanisms of Destruction of Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.5.4 Secondary Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.6 Imaging with Ultrasound Contrast Agents
14.6.1 Introduction
14.6.2 Opacification
14.6.3 Perfusion
14.6.4 Other Methods
14.6.5 Clinical Applications
14.7 Therapeutic Ultrasound Contrast Agents: Smart Bubbles
14.7.1 Introduction to Types of Agents
14.7.2 Ultrasound-induced Bioeffects Related to Contrast Agents
14.7.3 Targeted Contrast Agent Applications
14.8 Equations of Motion for Contrast Agents
14.9 Conclusion
References
Bibliography
15 Ultrasound-induced Bioeffects
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ultrasound-induced Bioeffects: Observation to Regulation
15.3 Thermal Effects
15.3.1 Introduction to Thermal Tissue Response
15.3.2 Heat Conduction Effects
15.3.3 Absorption Effects
15.3.4 Perfusion Effects
15.3.5 Combined Contributions to Temperature Elevation
15.3.6 Biologically Sensitive Sites
15.4 Nonthermal Effects
15.5 The Output Display Standard
15.5.1 Origins of the Output Display Standard
15.5.2 Thermal Indices
15.5.3 Mechanical Index
15.5.4 The ODS Revisited
15.6 Ultrasound-induced Bioeffects: A Closer Look
15.6.1 Introduction to Interrelated Bioeffects
15.6.2 The Thermal Continuum
15.6.3 Nonthermal Effects
15.6.4 Microbubbles
15.6.5 Combined Effects
15.7 Comparison of Medical Ultrasound Modalities
15.7.1 Introduction
15.7.2 Ultrasound Physiotherapy
15.7.3 Hyperthermia
15.7.4 High-intensity Focused Ultrasound
15.7.5 Lithotripsy
15.7.6 Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging
15.8 Equations for Predicting Temperature Rise
15.9 Conclusions
References
Bibliography
16 Elastography
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Elastography Physics
16.2.1 Elastic Behavior: Longitudinal and Shear
16.2.2 Viscoelastic Effects
16.2.3 Strain Imaging
16.2.4 Nonlinearity Effects
16.2.5 Acoustic Radiation Forces
16.2.6 Model-based Inversion
16.3 Elastography Implementations
16.3.1 Introduction
16.3.2 1D Elastography
16.3.3 Quasi-static Elastography
16.3.4 Sonoelastography
16.3.5 Shear Wave Elasticity Imaging
16.3.6 Acoustic Radiation Impulse Imaging
16.3.7 Vibro-acoustography Imaging
16.3.8 Harmonic Motion Imaging
16.3.9 Supersonic Shear Imaging
16.3.10 Natural Imaging
16.4 Conclusions
References
Bibliography
17 Therapeutic Ultrasound
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Therapeutic Ultrasound Physics
17.2.1 Introduction
17.2.2 High-intensity Focused Ultrasound
17.2.3 Histotripsy and Hemostasis
17.2.4 Cavitation-enhanced HIFU
17.2.5 Monitoring
17.3 Therapeutic Ultrasound Applications
17.3.1 HIFU
17.3.1.1 Introduction
17.3.1.2 Extracorporeal HIFU
17.3.1.3 Transrectal HIFU
17.3.2 Transcranial Ultrasound
17.3.3 Sonothrombolysis
17.3.4 Cosmetic Ultrasound
17.3.5 Lithotripsy
17.3.6 Ultrasound-mediated Drug Delivery and Gene Therapy
17.3.7 Ultrasound-induced Neurostimulation
17.3.8 Bone and Wound Healing
17.4 Conclusions
References
Appendix A: The Fourier Transform
A.1 Introduction
A.2 The Fourier Transform
A.2.1 Definitions
A.2.2 Fourier Transform Pairs
A.2.3 Fundamental Fourier Transform Operations
A.2.4 The Sampled Waveform
A.2.5 The Digital Fourier Transform
A.2.6 Calculating a Fourier Transform with an FFT
A.2.7 Calculating an Inverse Fourier Transform and a Hilbert Transform with an FFT
A.2.8 Calculating a Two-dimensional Fourier Transform with FFTs
References
Bibliography
Appendix B
References
Appendix C: Development of One-Dimensional KLM Model Based on ABCD Matrices
References
Appendix D: List of Groups Interested in Medical Ultrasound
Index