Contents
About the Editors
1: Forensic DNA Analysis: A Powerful Investigative Tool
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Developments in Forensic DNA Analysis
1.3 Steps in Forensic DNA Analysis
1.4 Various Techniques of DNA Profiling
1.4.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
1.4.1.1 Advantages of RFLP
1.4.1.2 Despite of the Advantages of this Technique, Some of the Demerits Are
1.4.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
1.4.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction Method Is Carried Out as Follows
1.4.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STR)
1.4.4 Low Copy Number (LCN) Analysis
1.4.5 Variable Number Tandem Repeat
1.4.6 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis
1.4.7 Single-Cell DNA Finger Printing
1.4.8 Y-Chromosome Analysis
1.4.9 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
1.5 Challenges in Forensic Science for DNA Profiling
1.6 Cases Resolved Using Various Techniques of DNA Analysis in Forensic Science
1.6.1 Case 1
1.6.2 Case 2
1.6.3 Case 3
1.6.4 Case 4
1.6.5 Case 5
1.6.6 Case 6
1.6.7 Case 7
1.6.8 Case 8
1.6.9 Case 9
1.7 Applications of DNA Analysis in Forensic Science
1.8 Nanotechnology in DNA Analysis
1.9 Future Advancements of Nanotechnology in the Field of Forensic Science
1.10 Collection of DNA Samples and Issues Related to Sampling
1.11 Methods of Sample Collection
1.12 Issues Related to Sampling
1.13 Forensic Examination Levels
1.14 Analysis of Non-human Species Via DNA Profiling
1.15 Future of Forensic DNA Analysis
1.16 Summary
References
2: Death Acre: Tales of Dead Body Land
2.1 Purpose of the Work on the Crime Scene [1, 2]
2.2 The Processing Methodology at the Crime Scene
2.2.1 Stages of Work at the Crime Scene
2.2.1.1 Evaluation
2.2.1.2 Observation
2.2.1.3 Documentation
2.2.1.4 Search: Identification of Traces, Footprints and Other Evidences
2.2.1.5 Sampling and Lifting of Traces, Footprints, and Other Evidences
2.2.1.6 Processing/Analysis and Reporting
2.3 Searching Evidences: Forensic Lights [9]
2.4 Removal and Lifting of Marks, Traces and Vestiges (Sampling of Material Evidence) [12-15]
2.4.1 Why Is the Evidence Identification and Collection Process Are Important?
2.4.2 Quality Control in Evidence Collection at the Crime Scene
2.5 Examination of the Corpse or Remains
2.5.1 Objectives of the Examination of the Corpse at the Crime Scene
2.5.1.1 Processing/Analysis of the Scene (Body)
2.5.1.2 Identification
2.5.1.3 Postmortem Interval [19-24]
The Place Where the Corpse Is Found [13, 26]
Forensic Entomology as a Method to Establish the Postmortem Interval [22]
Cadaveric Phenomena or Corpse-Destroying Phenomena [13]
Autolysis
Cooling or Algor Mortis
Dehydration
Cadaverous Lividities, or Livor Mortis
Cadaverous Stiffness, or Rigor Mortis
Late Cadaveric Phenomena
Detachment of the Epidermis
Factors that Retard Decomposition, or Conservative Phenomena of the Corpse
Physical Barriers
Chemical Barriers
Climatic Factors
Mummification
Saponification (Adipocere) [13]
2.5.1.4 Cause of Death
External Examination of Bodies in Different Causes of Death
Disease [6, 31-33]
Sudden Infant Death [34]
Asphyxia
Trauma [35]
Poisoning or Intoxication
2.5.1.5 Manner of Death
Forensic Photograph of the Corpse [42]
Examination of Deceased in Hospitals
2.6 Clothing Examination [34]
2.6.1 The Clothing: Terminology
2.6.2 The Examination of Clothes in Special Cases
2.6.2.1 Identity Verification
2.6.2.2 Aggressions, Traffic Accidents, and Sexual Assault
2.6.2.3 Abductions
2.6.2.4 Clothes and Cause of Death
2.6.2.5 Collecting and Conservation of Clothing
2.7 Body Management
2.8 Technological Means in Its Right Measure [51]
2.9 Human Error in Criminal Investigation: How to Avoid It [52-54]
2.9.1 Cognitive Biases [8]
2.9.1.1 Limitations of Perception and Memory
2.9.1.2 Intuition
2.9.1.3 Heuristics and Biases
2.9.1.4 Anchorage
2.9.1.5 Tunnel Vision (Satisficing)
2.9.1.6 Availability
2.9.1.7 Framing
2.9.1.8 Representativeness
2.9.1.9 Cause-Effect Biases
2.9.1.10 Biases in the Evaluation of Evidence
2.9.1.11 Confirmation or Verification Bias
2.9.1.12 The Occamยดs Razor
2.10 Crime Scene Report [1, 55-57]
References
3: Small Size, Big Impact: Insects for Cadaver Examination
3.1 Introduction
3.2 History of Forensic Entomology
3.3 Flies in Direct Relevance with the Corpse
3.4 Importance of Insects in Criminal Investigation
3.4.1 Estimation of Post-mortem Interval (PMI)
3.4.2 Drug Detection from Insects
3.5 Factors Affecting the Growth of Decomposers
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Dermatoglyphics and Other Impressions: Deciphering the Potential of a Unique Hominid Niche
4.1 An Overview
4.2 Fingerprint Patterns
4.3 Use of Dermatoglyphics to Identify Left Hand
4.4 Latent Prints/Invisible Fingerprints
4.5 Patent Prints/Visible Fingerprint
4.6 Plastic Prints/3-D fingerprints
4.7 Detection and Examination of Footprints
4.8 History
4.9 Evolution of Fingerprint Science
4.10 Fingerprint Development Techniques
4.10.1 Surface Characteristics
4.10.2 Optical Detection Techniques
4.10.3 Detection Techniques for Porous Surfaces
4.10.4 Detection Techniques for Nonporous Surfaces
4.10.5 Detection Techniques for Semi-porous Surfaces
4.10.6 Use of Dermatoglyphics in Diagnosis of Various Pathologies
References
5: Postmortem Toxicology: A Facet of Drugs to Expedite Crimes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Branches of Toxicology
5.3 Types of Cases Encountered in Forensic Toxicology
5.4 Poison
5.4.1 Classification
5.5 Psychoactive and Narcotic Drugs
5.5.1 Classification of Drugs
5.6 Postmortem Toxicology: Autopsies in Drug-Facilitated Crimes
5.7 Death: Toxicological Investigation
5.7.1 Physical Examination
5.7.2 Pigmentation/Dermal Clues
5.7.3 Olfactory Clues
5.8 Toxicological Examination
5.8.1 General Steps in Toxicological Analysis
5.9 Case Study: Drug-Facilitated Crimes (DFC)
References
6: Forensic Biology: A Passport for Biological Evidence
6.1 Introduction
6.2 History of Forensic Biology
6.3 Sources and Types of Biological Evidence
6.4 Biological Evidence as Evidence for Other Forensic Fields
6.5 Testing and Assessment of Biological Evidence
6.5.1 Analysis of Major Body Fluids Analysis of Blood
6.6 Semen Analysis
6.7 Saliva Analysis
6.8 Urine Analysis
6.8.1 Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA)
6.8.2 DNA Fingerprinting
6.9 Y-Chromosome Testing
6.10 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Testing
6.10.1 Non-Human DNA Testing
6.10.2 Microbial Forensics and Bioterrorism
6.11 Issues with Forensic DNA Evidence
6.12 Degraded DNA
6.13 PCR Inhibition
6.14 Issues Related to Contamination
6.15 Mixed Samples and Their Analyses
6.16 Conclusion
References
7: Sexual Offences: Recent Methods of Investigation
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Sexual Offences
7.1.2 Natural Offences
7.1.2.1 Rape
7.1.2.2 Incest
7.1.2.3 Adultery
7.1.3 Sexual Paraphilias
7.1.3.1 Sadism
7.1.3.2 Masochism
7.1.3.3 Necrophilia
7.1.3.4 Fetishism
7.1.3.5 Exhibitionism
7.1.3.6 Masturbation
7.1.3.7 Frotteurism
7.1.3.8 Undinism
7.1.4 Unnatural Offenses
7.1.4.1 Sodomy
7.1.4.2 Tribadism
7.1.5 Sex-Linked Offences
7.1.5.1 Stalking
7.1.5.2 Voyeurism
7.1.5.3 Sexual Harassment
7.1.5.4 Sex Trafficking
7.1.5.5 Indecent Assault
7.2 Investigation in Sexual Offenses
7.3 Investigative Procedures
7.4 Response by Communications Personnel
7.5 Investigating Officer Response
7.6 Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault
7.7 Delayed Report
7.8 Role of Supervisor
7.9 Victims Advocate
7.10 Collection of Evidence
7.11 Victims Interview
7.12 Approaching Suspect and Interviewing
7.13 Protection of Victim
7.14 Medical and Forensic Examinations in Sexual Assault
7.14.1 Time Guidelines
7.14.2 Collection of Samples
7.14.3 Recent Investigation Techniques in Sexual Offences DEPArray System for Sexual Offense Evidence Processing
7.15 Procedure
7.15.1 DEPArray Sample Processing
7.15.2 Differential Extractions
7.15.3 Amplification and Analyses
7.15.4 Bite Mark Utility in Sexual Offences
7.15.5 Bite Mark Documentation and Analysis: The Forensic 3D/CAD-Supported Photogrammetry Approach
7.16 Spermatozoa Detection Using Ultrasound Technique
7.17 Conclusion
References
8: Investigation of Disaster Victim Identification
8.1 Introduction
8.2 International Police Organization (Interpol)
8.3 Working Conditions
8.4 Key Tasks for Victim Identification [5]
8.4.1 Evidence Collection
8.4.2 Examination and Recording
8.4.3 Interpretation
8.4.4 Reporting
8.4.5 Presentation
8.4.6 Protocols
8.5 Forensic Odontology
8.5.1 Scene
8.5.2 Postmortem/Mortuary Team
8.5.3 Antemortem Team
8.5.4 Reconciliation
8.5.5 Debrief
8.6 New Methodologies in Forensic Odontology
8.6.1 Photography
8.6.2 CAT Scanning
8.6.3 Barcoding
8.6.4 RFID Tags
8.6.5 3-D Scanning
8.6.6 3-D Printing
8.7 Case Studies
8.8 Forensic Anthropology
8.8.1 Scene
8.8.2 Mortuary
8.8.3 Case Study
8.9 DNA DVI
8.9.1 Antemortem Samples
8.9.2 Postmortem Samples
8.10 DNA Analysis
8.10.1 Sample Processing
8.10.2 Isolation of DNA
8.11 DNA Profiling
8.11.1 STR (Short Tandem Repeats)
8.11.2 SNPs
8.11.3 Mt. DNA
8.11.4 Y-Chromosome DNA
8.12 Matching of DNA Profiles and Statistical Analysis
8.12.1 Challenges
8.12.2 New Outcomes
8.13 Case Study
8.13.1 Fingerprints
8.13.2 Radiography
8.13.3 Postmortem Computer Tomography
8.14 Case Study
8.15 Methods Employed for Body Examination
8.15.1 Identification Process
8.16 Modern Advancements
8.17 Conclusion
References
9: Review on Clinical Forensic Medicine
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Relationship Between Clinical Forensic Medicine and Forensic Medicine
9.1.2 Clinical Forensic Medicine
9.1.3 Role of Forensic Physician (FP)
9.1.4 Clinical Forensic Medicine in the Emergency Department: Common Errors and Need
9.2 Cases Dealt in the Clinical Forensic Medicine
9.2.1 Injuries: Assessment and Documentation
9.2.1.1 Injury Assessment
9.2.1.2 Documentation
9.2.1.3 Types of Injury
9.2.2 Injuries Due to Arson/Burn
9.2.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2.2 Classification of Burn Injury
9.2.2.3 Burn Changes
9.2.2.4 Burn Assessment
9.2.2.5 Burn Assessment Techniques
9.2.2.6 Pain Management in Burnt Patients
9.2.2.7 Self-Inflicted Burn
9.2.3 Sexual Assault
9.2.3.1 Introduction
9.2.3.2 Examination of the Victim
9.2.3.3 Examination of the Suspect
9.2.4 Sexual Offences
9.2.4.1 Natural Sexual Offences
Rape
Examination of the Victim
Examination of Suspect
Incest
9.2.4.2 Unnatural Sexual Offences
Sodomy
Bestiality
Tribadism
Buccal Coitus
9.2.4.3 Sexual Paraphilias
Necrophilia
Necrophagia
Sadism
Masochism
Fetichism
Frotteurism
Undinism
Transvestism
Exhibitionism
9.2.5 Child Abuse
9.2.5.1 Introduction
9.2.5.2 Types of Child Abuse
9.2.5.3 Examination of Victims in Child Abuse
9.2.5.4 Examination of Suspects in Child Sexual Abuse
9.2.6 School Violence
9.2.6.1 Introduction
9.2.6.2 Cause and Factors Responsible for School Violence
9.2.6.3 Behavioral Distinction
9.2.6.4 Preventive Measures of School Violence
9.2.7 Domestic Violence
9.2.7.1 Introduction
9.2.7.2 Types of Domestic Violence
9.2.7.3 Examination of Victims in Domestic Violence
9.2.7.4 Examination of Suspects in Domestic Violence
9.2.8 Pseudo Victimization
9.2.9 Self-Harm
9.2.9.1 Introduction
9.2.9.2 Characteristics of Self-Harm
9.2.9.3 Categories of Self-Harm (Fig. 9.13, Table 9.4)
9.2.9.4 Diagnosis of Self-Harm
9.3 Conclusion
References
10: Firearms and Ammunitions: A Sentient Approach to Criminal Investigation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 History of Firearms
10.3 Historic Examination of Firearms and Ammunition
10.4 Ballistics and Its Parts
10.5 Examination of Firearms
10.5.1 Examination of Ammunition
10.6 Primers and Propellants
10.6.1 Primers
10.6.2 Cartridge Types
10.6.3 Pinfire Cartridge
10.6.4 Rimfire Cartridge
10.6.5 Centerfire Cartridge
10.6.6 Ricochet
10.6.6.1 Impacts of Ricochet
10.7 Classification of Firearms
10.8 Shotguns
10.9 Rifled Weapons
10.10 Pistols
10.11 Revolver
10.12 Crime and Investigation
10.13 Types of Crime
10.14 Ballistic Examination of Firearm Evidences
10.14.1 Range of Fire
10.14.2 Muzzle Pattern/Contact Firing
10.14.3 Powder Patterns
10.14.4 Burning
10.14.5 Blackening
10.14.6 Tattooing
10.14.7 Wad Distribution
10.14.8 Pellet Patterns
10.14.9 Gunshot Residue (GSR)
10.15 GSR Analysis and Examination
10.15.1 Walkerยดs Test
10.15.2 Swabbing Technique
10.15.3 Paraffin Test
10.15.4 Dermal Nitrate Test
10.15.5 Harrison and Gilroyยดs Test
10.15.6 Griess Test
10.16 Significance of Firearms Evidences in Criminal Investigation
10.17 Conclusion
References
11: Digital and Cyber Forensics: A Contemporary Evolution in Forensic Sciences
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Digital Forensics and Cyber Forensics
11.1.2 History of Digital Forensics
11.1.3 Digital Forensics Standards and Guidelines
11.1.3.1 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
11.1.3.2 National Institute of Justice (NIJ)
11.1.3.3 International Organization on Computer Evidence (IOCE)
11.1.3.4 American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD)
11.1.3.5 ISO SC 27 CS1
11.1.4 Glossary Used in Digital and Cyber Forensics
11.1.5 Electronic Evidence
11.1.5.1 Challenges with Electronic Evidence
11.1.5.2 Guidelines for Electronic Evidence
11.1.6 Forensic Investigation Process
11.1.6.1 Acquisition
Levels of Data Acquisition
Types of Acquisition
Imaging Formats
Process of Acquisition
11.1.6.2 Examination
Triage
Methods for Computer Examinations
Data Recovery
Filtering
11.1.6.3 Analysis
Categories of Digital Traces
Procedure for Different Traces
Virtualization
Process of Handling Mass Data
11.1.6.4 Presentation
Admissibility of Electronic Evidence
Report Writing
Expert Witness
11.1.7 Digital Forensic Tools
11.1.7.1 Forensic Tool Kit (FTK)
11.1.7.2 Autopsy Kit
11.1.7.3 Volatility
11.1.7.4 Registry Recon
11.1.7.5 Cellebrite UFED
11.1.7.6 Wireshark
11.1.8 Applications of Digital and Cyber Forensics
11.2 Conclusion
References
12: Fire Investigation: Arson or Accidental
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fire Investigation
12.3 Conducting Fire Investigation
12.3.1 Criminal Suspicion
12.3.2 Financial Recovery
12.3.3 Education
12.4 Fire Science
12.4.1 Nature
12.4.2 Behaviour
12.4.3 Chemical Nature
12.5 Investigating the Fire Scene
12.6 Preserving the Scene
12.7 Sketching System
12.8 Processing of Evidences at the Scene
12.9 Accelerants
12.10 Petrol
12.11 Kerosene
12.12 Diesel
12.13 Accelerant Detection at the Scene
12.13.1 Sniffers
12.13.2 Canine Detection Teams
12.13.3 Portable Gas Chromatographs
12.13.4 Portable Mass Spectrometer
12.13.5 Chemical Tests
12.14 Fire Scene Examination
12.15 Origin Determination
12.16 Floor Patterns
12.17 Undamaged Areas
12.18 Penetrations
12.19 Reconstruction of the Fire Scene
12.20 Cause of Fire
12.21 Samples to be Collected for Analysis
12.22 Properties of Ideal Samples
12.23 Samples Commonly Collected for Laboratory Analysis
12.23.1 Wood
12.23.2 Carpet
12.23.3 Soot Debris
12.23.4 Concrete
12.23.5 Roof
12.24 Sampling Containers
12.24.1 Integrity of Containers
12.25 Laboratory Sampling
12.25.1 Conventional Method
12.25.1.1 Solvent Extraction
12.25.1.2 Steam Distillation
12.25.1.3 Vacuum Distillation
12.26 Disadvantages of Conventional Method
12.27 Modern Methods
12.28 Direct Headspace Analysis
12.28.1 Dynamic Headspace Sampling
12.28.2 Passive Headspace Concentration
12.29 Sorbents
12.30 Extraction Solvent
12.31 Analysis
12.32 Analytical Techniques
12.32.1 Gas Chromatography
12.32.2 Two-Dimensional GC
12.32.3 GC-MS
12.32.4 Advantages of TCT-GC-MS
12.32.5 Gas Chromatography and Tandem Mass Spectrometry
12.32.6 Other Technique
12.33 Case Study
12.33.1 Observations
12.33.2 Results
12.34 Case Study II
12.34.1 Observations
12.34.2 Result
12.35 Conclusion
References
13: Psychological Evaluations: An Indoor Game of Criminal Minds
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Forensic Psychology and Criminal Investigations
13.1.2 Criminal Profiling
13.2 Behavior Analyzed in the Crime Scene
13.3 Theories of Criminal Behavior
13.3.1 Classical Theory
13.3.2 Theory of Evolutionary Atavism
13.3.3 Differential Association Theory
13.3.4 Social Learning Theory
13.3.5 Tardeยดs Imitation Theory
13.3.5.1 Developing Theory
13.3.6 Labelling Theory
13.4 Stages of Labelling (Fig. 13.2)
13.4.1 Rational Choice Theory
13.4.2 Social Control Theory
13.5 Personality Disorders and Criminal Behavior
13.6 Intelligence and Offending
13.7 Socioeconomic Factors and Crime
13.8 Investigative Techniques Used in Forensic Psychology
13.8.1 Polygraph
13.8.1.1 History of the Polygraph
13.8.1.2 Components of the Polygraph
13.8.1.3 Principle Behind the Use of the Polygraph
13.8.1.4 What Happens when We Are in Stress?
13.9 Psychological and Physiological Symptoms of Guilt
13.9.1 Three Phases of the Examination or Polygraph Test
13.9.2 Narcoanalysis/Narcosynthesis
13.9.3 Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling
13.9.3.1 Important Points in BEOS Profiling
13.9.3.2 Difference between Knowing and Remembrance
13.9.4 Forensic Hypnosis
13.9.4.1 Session of Forensic Hypnosis
13.10 Different Roles of the Forensic Psychologist
References
14: Competence of Evidences: A Pragmatic Approach in Court of Law
14.1 Legal Classification of Evidences
14.2 Legal Admissibility of Evidence
14.2.1 Conditions for the Admissibility of Evidence
14.2.2 American Law
14.2.2.1 Frye Standard
14.2.2.2 Daubert Standard
14.2.3 Indian Law
14.2.3.1 Indian Evidence Act (IEA), 1872
14.2.3.2 Sec.293, Code of Criminal Procedure
References
15: Penology: A Friend or Foe for Criminal Justice System
15.1 Introduction
15.2 History
15.2.1 Cesar Beccariaยดs Views About Penology
15.2.2 Jeremy Benthamยดs View About Penology
15.3 Punishment in Medieval and Modern/New India
15.3.1 Punishment in Medieval India
15.3.2 Punishment in Modern or New Penology
15.4 Understanding Factors Influencing Penal Policy
15.5 Approaches in Penology
15.6 Principle of Penology
15.7 Theories of Punishment
15.7.1 Retribution Theory
15.7.2 Deterrent Theory
15.7.3 Preventive Theory
15.7.4 Reformative Theory
15.7.5 Rehabilitation Theory
15.8 Criminology
15.9 The Birth of Criminology
15.10 Indian Criminal Courts Hierarchy
15.10.1 Supreme Court
15.10.2 High Court
15.10.3 Lower Courts
15.11 Criminal Justice Systems Around the World
15.12 The Supreme Court of Britain
15.13 The Court of Appeal
15.14 The High Court
15.15 County Courts
15.16 The Tribunals
15.17 Senior Courts of the England and Wales
15.18 Special Courts
15.19 Other Courts
15.20 The Relation Between Criminology and Criminal Justice System
15.20.1 Cooperation (Service) Model
15.20.2 Submissive Model
15.20.3 Disillusioned (Dismissive) Model
15.21 Difference Between Criminology and Criminal Justice System
15.22 Quest: Is Criminology Good for Criminal Law?
15.23 Sentencing Standards Arrangements and Procedure
15.24 Sentencing Procedures
15.25 The Five Rules of Punishment
15.26 Restitution and Victim-Offender Mediation and Victimsยด Rights
15.26.1 Relationship Between Penology and Victimology
15.26.2 Right of Victim
15.26.3 Mental Health in Prison
15.26.4 Psychological Impact on Juvenile
15.26.5 Psychological Impact on Adults
15.26.5.1 Quest: Does the Punishment Fit the Crime?
15.26.5.2 Quest: Do Prisons Rehabilitate or Dehabilitate Offenders?
15.27 Crime Prevention
15.27.1 Concepts of Crime Prevention
15.27.2 Crime Control
15.28 Prison Reforms in India
15.29 Protection Provided to International Diplomats
15.30 Recent Development
15.31 Relationship Between Penology and Criminal Justice System
15.32 Summary
15.32.1 Can Penology Be Seen as a Friend?
15.32.2 Can Penology Be a Foe?
15.33 Conclusion
References
16: Chain of Custody: Scaling the Investigation to the Event
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Steps of Chain of Custody
16.3 Evidence Collection
16.4 Preservation and Packaging of Evidence
16.5 Storage of Evidences
16.6 Transportation of Evidences
16.7 Evidence Analysis
16.8 Disposal of Evidences
16.9 The Significance of the Custody Chain
16.10 Case Study
16.11 Conclusion
References