Cognitive radio technology

✍ Scribed by Bruce A. Fette

• Publisher: Academic Press/Elsevier
• Year: 2009
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 828
• Edition: 2nd ed
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book gives a thorough knowledge of cognitive radio concepts, principles, standards, spectrum policy issues and product implementation details. In addition to 16 chapters covering all the basics of cognitive radio, this new edition has eight brand-new chapters covering cognitive radio in multiple antenna systems, policy language and policy engine, spectrum sensing, rendezvous techniques, spectrum consumption models, protocols for adaptation, cognitive networking, and information on the latest standards, making it an indispensable resource for the RF and wireless engineer.

• Foreword and a chapter contribution by Joe Mitola, the creator of the field
• Discussion of cognitive aids to the user, spectrum owner, and network operator
• Explanation of capabilities such as time - position awareness, speech and language awareness, multi-objective radio and network optimization, and supporting database infrastructure
• Detailed information on product implementation to aid product developers
• Thorough descriptions of each cognitive radio component technology provided by leaders of their respective fields, and the latest in high performance analysis - implementation techniques
• Explanations of the complex architecture and terminology of the current standards activities
• Discussions of market opportunities created by cognitive radio technology

The new edition of this cutting edge reference, which gives a thorough knowledge of principles, implementation details, standards, policy issues in one volume, enables the RF and wireless engineer to master and apply today's cognitive radio technologies.

Bruce Fette , PhD, is Chief Scientist in the Communications Networking Division of General Dynamics C4 Systems in Scottsdale, AZ. HeВ worked with the Software Defined Radio (SDR) Forum from its inception, currently performing the role of Technical Chair, and is a panelist for the IEEE Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing Industrial Technology Track. He currently heads the General Dynamics Signal Processing Center of Excellence in the Communication Networks Division. Dr. Fette has 36 patents and has been awarded the ''Distinguished Innovator Award''.

                                     * Foreword and a chapter contribution by Joe Mitola, the creator of the field * Discussion of cognitive aids to the user, spectrum owner, network operator * Explanation of capabilities such as time - position awareness, speech and language awareness, multi-objective radio and network optimization, and supporting database infrastructure * Detailed information on product implementation to aid product developers * Thorough descriptions of each cognitive radio component technology provided by  leaders of their respective fields, and the latest in high performance analysis - implementation techniques  * Explanations of the complex architecture and terminology of the current standards activities * Discussions of market opportunities created by cognitive radio technology

✦ Table of Contents

Cover Page
......Page 1
Copyright Page
......Page 2
Preface......Page 3
Acknowledgments......Page 7
History and Background Leading to Cognitive Radio......Page 11
A Brief History of Software Defined Radio......Page 13
Basic SDR......Page 16
Hardware Architecture of an SDR......Page 17
Computational Processing Resources in an SDR......Page 20
Software Architecture of an SDR......Page 22
Cognitive Radio......Page 23
Java Reflection in a Cognitive Radio......Page 24
Smart Antennas in a Cognitive Radio......Page 25
Spectrum Management......Page 26
Managing Unlicensed Spectrum......Page 27
Noise Aggregation......Page 28
Priority Access......Page 30
DARPA......Page 31
How Smart Is Useful?......Page 32
Organization of This Book......Page 33
References......Page 36
Introduction......Page 37
Cognitive Radio Technology Enablers......Page 38
New Opportunities in Spectrum Access......Page 40
Current Spectrum Access Techniques......Page 41
Opportunistic Spectrum Access......Page 46
Policy Challenges for Cognitive Radios......Page 49
Dynamic Spectrum Access......Page 50
Defining the Rules for Dynamic Spectrum Access......Page 51
Security......Page 52
Monitoring Mechanisms......Page 53
Cognitive Radio Impact on Communications Policy......Page 54
Federal Communications Commission Formation......Page 55
US Telecommunications Policy: Keeping Pace with Technology......Page 56
Fixed Transmitter, Mobile Receiver(s)......Page 58
Mobile Transmitter, Fixed Receiver(s)......Page 59
Introduction of Dynamic Policies......Page 60
Introduction of Policy-Enabled Devices......Page 62
Interference Avoidance......Page 63
Global Policy Interest in Cognitive Radios......Page 64
Global Interest......Page 65
Government Accountability Office......Page 67
National Telecommunications and Information Administration......Page 68
Federal Communications Commission......Page 69
Center for Strategic and International Studies......Page 70
Summary......Page 71
References......Page 73
Introduction......Page 75
RF Externals......Page 77
Analog-to-Digital Converters......Page 79
Medium Access Control......Page 80
User Application......Page 81
Design Choices......Page 82
General-Purpose Processors......Page 83
Digital Signal Processors......Page 84
Field-Programmable Gate Arrays......Page 85
Baseband Processing Deployment......Page 86
Multicore Systems and System-on-Chip......Page 88
Linear Programming......Page 89
Component-Based Programming......Page 90
Design Patterns......Page 91
Software Communications Architecture......Page 92
Base Components......Page 94
PropertySet......Page 95
ResourceFactory......Page 96
Hardware Control......Page 97
ApplicationFactory......Page 99
System Control......Page 100
Application Programming Interface......Page 103
Application Software......Page 104
Java......Page 105
Python......Page 106
Component Development......Page 107
Waveform Development......Page 108
Cognitive Waveform Development......Page 109
Summary......Page 112
References......Page 113
Radio Flexibility and Capability......Page 114
Continuum of Radio Flexibility and Capability......Page 115
Examples of Software-Defined Radios......Page 116
Aware, Adaptive, and Cognitive Radios......Page 120
Adaptive Radios......Page 121
Cognitive Radios......Page 122
Comparison of Radio Capabilities and Properties......Page 123
Spectrum Awareness/Frequency Occupancy......Page 124
Time......Page 125
Spatial Awareness or Situational Awareness......Page 126
Policy Engines......Page 127
Artificial Intelligence Techniques......Page 128
Networking Protocols......Page 130
Spectrum Awareness and Potential for Sublease or Borrow......Page 131
Funding and Research in Cognitive Radios......Page 132
Cognitive Geolocation Applications......Page 133
Dynamic Spectrum Access and Spectrum Awareness......Page 135
Infrastructure-Aided Rendezvous......Page 140
Cognitive Radio Authentication Applications......Page 141
Timeline for Cognitive Radios......Page 142
Manufacture of New Products......Page 143
PHY, MAC, and Network Layers......Page 144
Reasoners......Page 145
Hardware and Demonstrations......Page 146
Summary......Page 147
Exercises......Page 148
References......Page 149
Dynamic Spectrum Awareness and Access Objectives......Page 151
Prior Work in Spectrum Awareness and Access......Page 152
Some End-to-End DSA Example Implementations......Page 154
Spectrum Environment Characterization Summary......Page 155
Signal Bandwidth Spectrum Environment Characterization......Page 157
Front-End Energy Distributions and the Importance of Front-End Nonlinearity......Page 160
Front-End Linearity Management......Page 169
Representative Front-End Linearity of Experimental Collections......Page 171
Front-End Linearity Management Algorithms and Methods......Page 176
Front-End Linearity Management Benefits......Page 180
Dynamic Spectrum Access Objectives......Page 184
Interference-Intolerant Operation......Page 187
Interference-Tolerant DSA Operation......Page 192
Spectral Footprint Management Objectives......Page 194
Implications on Network-Level Decision Making......Page 196
DSA-Enabled Dynamic Bandwidth Topology......Page 197
DSA-Enabled Dynamic Topology and Network Organization......Page 198
Exercises......Page 199
References......Page 200
Background and Definitions......Page 203
Management of Spectrum Policy......Page 205
System Requirements for Spectrum Policy Management......Page 206
DARPA Policy Management Projects......Page 207
Academic Research in Policy Management......Page 208
Commercial Applications of Policy Management......Page 210
Standardization Efforts for Policy Management......Page 211
Concept for Policy Engine Operations......Page 213
Technical Approaches for Policy Management......Page 215
Enabling Technologies......Page 217
Integration of Policy Engines into Cognitive Radio......Page 218
Software Communications Architecture Integration......Page 219
Policy Engine Design......Page 221
Integration of the Radio into a Network Policy Management Architecture......Page 223
The Future of Cognitive Policy Management......Page 224
Military Opportunities for Cognitive Policy Management......Page 225
Obstacles to Adoption of Policy Management Architectures......Page 226
Summary......Page 227
References......Page 228
Introduction......Page 231
Optimizing Physical and Link Layers for Multiple Objectives under Current Channel Conditions......Page 232
Defining the Cognitive Radio......Page 233
Developing Radio Controls (Knobs) and Performance Measures (Meters)......Page 234
Knobs......Page 235
Meters......Page 236
Modeling Outcome as a Primary Objective......Page 238
erfc Approximation Eq. (7.2) Compared to Analytical Formula Eq. (7.3)......Page 239
Multiobjective Decision-Making Theory and Its Application to Cognitive Radio......Page 240
The Pareto-Optimal Front: Finding the Nondominated Solutions......Page 241
Why the Radio Environment Is a MODM Problem......Page 242
Genetic Algorithm Approach to the MODM......Page 243
Knapsack Example......Page 244
Step 2a. Choose......Page 245
Step 2c. Mutate......Page 246
Step 3. Results: Choose Best Chromosomes......Page 247
Cognition Loop......Page 248
Modeling......Page 249
Action......Page 250
Case-Based Decision Theory......Page 251
Representing Radio Parameters as Genes in a Chromosome......Page 252
Multidimensional Analysis of the Chromosomes......Page 254
Objective Function Definition......Page 255
Relative Pooling Tournament Evaluation......Page 256
Example of the WSGA......Page 257
Population Initialization......Page 260
Priming the GA with Previously Observed Solutions......Page 261
The Theory......Page 262
The Implementation......Page 263
Adjusting Parameters Autonomously to Achieve Goals......Page 264
Rewards and Punishments Can Be Inflicted by Algorithms......Page 265
Sensing and Environmental Awareness......Page 266
Environmental Awareness......Page 267
Summary......Page 268
References......Page 270
Introduction......Page 273
Satellite System Architecture......Page 274
GPS Satellite Signals......Page 275
Signal Processing of GPS Signals......Page 276
Coordinate System Transformations......Page 277
Spatially Variant Network Service Availability......Page 278
Additional Geolocation Approaches......Page 280
Round-Trip Timing and Distance Measuring Equipment......Page 281
Fitting a TDoA Curve with Two Receivers......Page 282
Transforming to a Common Coordinate System......Page 285
Timing Estimates......Page 286
Geometry of AOA Approach......Page 287
Received Signal Strength Approach......Page 288
Border Database Representation Analysis......Page 289
Method A......Page 290
Anomalies......Page 291
Policy Servers and Regions......Page 292
Example of Cellular Phone 911 Geolocation for First Responders......Page 293
Interface to Networking Functions......Page 294
Summary......Page 295
References......Page 296
Applications and Their Requirements......Page 297
Layering and Information Hiding......Page 298
Network Awareness: Protocols......Page 299
Dynamic Protocol Composition......Page 300
Feature Interaction in Dynamic Protocol Composition......Page 301
Cognitive Control......Page 302
Situation-Aware Protocols in Edge Network Technologies......Page 303
Network Awareness: Node Capabilities and Cooperation......Page 305
A Distributed System of Radios—The Radio Team......Page 306
Maintaining a Collaborative Channel......Page 307
Network Awareness: Node Location and Cognition for Self-Placement......Page 308
Exercises......Page 310
References......Page 311
Introduction......Page 313
Enrollment and Verification......Page 314
User Authentication......Page 318
Security Architecture with Biometric Processing......Page 320
Applications......Page 321
Language Identification......Page 322
Text-to-Speech Conversion......Page 323
Machine Translation......Page 324
Background Noise Suppression......Page 325
Speech Coding......Page 326
Noise Characterization......Page 327
Concierge Services......Page 328
References......Page 330
Introduction......Page 333
Internal and External Network Support......Page 334
Introduction to the REM......Page 335
The Role of the REM in Cognition Cycle......Page 337
Awareness: Prerequisite for Cognitive Radios......Page 338
Classification of Awareness......Page 340
Obtaining SA with REM: A Top-Down, Cost-Efficient Approach......Page 341
Architecture of REM-Enabled Cognitive Engines......Page 345
Classifications of REM......Page 346
REM Database Implementation Options......Page 347
Enabling Techniques for Implementing REM......Page 349
Supporting Elements for Exploiting REM......Page 352
Learning, Reasoning, and Decision Mechanisms......Page 353
Memory Management......Page 354
APIs between REM and Cognitive Engine......Page 356
REM Dissemination Schemes......Page 357
REM Dissemination Overhead Analysis......Page 358
Infrastructure-Based Network and Centralized Global REM......Page 360
Overview of Potential Applications of REM in 802.22 WRANs......Page 363
Motivations for Applying REM-CKL to Cognitive WRANs......Page 364
How REM-CKL Works......Page 365
Applying REM to Ad Hoc Spectrum-Sharing Networks......Page 366
Summary and Open Issues......Page 371
References......Page 372
Introduction......Page 375
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning......Page 379
Symbolic Representation......Page 381
Ontologies and Frame Systems......Page 383
Behavioral Representation......Page 384
Case-Based Reasoning......Page 385
Rule-Based Systems......Page 386
Knowledge Representation Summary......Page 389
Machine Learning......Page 390
Memorization......Page 391
Classifiers......Page 392
Bayesian Logic......Page 393
Decision Trees......Page 394
Reinforcement-Based Learning......Page 395
Temporal Difference......Page 397
Neural Networks......Page 398
Genetic Algorithms......Page 400
Computational Requirements......Page 401
Predictable Behavior......Page 402
Summary......Page 403
Exercises......Page 405
References......Page 406
Knowledge-Intense Characteristics of Cognitive Radios......Page 408
Knowledge of Constraints and Requirements......Page 409
Information Collection and Fusion......Page 410
Query by User, Self, or Other Radio......Page 411
Dynamic Interoperability at Any Stack Layer......Page 412
Ontologies and Their Roles in Cognitive Radio......Page 413
Ontology Languages......Page 414
Querying......Page 416
Reasoning......Page 417
Role of Ontology in Knowledge-Intensive Applications......Page 418
Physical Layer Ontology......Page 419
Data Link Layer Ontology......Page 420
Responding to Delays and Errors......Page 425
Example: Adaptation of Training Sequence Length......Page 427
Data Link Layer Protocol Consistency and Selection......Page 429
Ontology Mapping......Page 430
Efficiency of Reasoning......Page 432
Exercises......Page 433
References......Page 434
Use Case Evolution......Page 436
Organization of the Chapter......Page 437
SDR Components......Page 438
CR Node Functional Components......Page 440
The Ontological ......Page 441
Design Rules Include Functional Component Interfaces......Page 442
Near-Term Implementations......Page 446
Radio Knowledge in the Architecture......Page 447
Cross-Domain Grounding for Flexible Information Services......Page 449
Self-Referential Inconsistency......Page 451
Flexible Functions of the Component Architecture......Page 453
Cognition Cycle......Page 455
Observe (Sense and Perceive)......Page 456
Binding......Page 457
Internally Oriented Actions......Page 458
Self-Monitoring......Page 459
CRA-III: The Inference Hierarchy......Page 460
Atomic Stimuli......Page 461
Basic Sequences......Page 462
NL in the CRA Inference Hierarchy......Page 463
Observe–Orient Links for Scene Interpretation......Page 464
Observe-Oriented Links for Radio Skill Sets......Page 466
General World Knowledge......Page 467
CRA-IV: Architecture Maps......Page 468
CRA Topological Maps......Page 469
CRA-Reinforced Hierarchical Sequences......Page 470
Sleeping and Dreaming Behaviors......Page 471
From Maps to APIs......Page 472
Industrial-Strength Inference Hierarchy......Page 473
Review of SWR and SDR Principles......Page 474
Radio Architecture......Page 477
The SCA......Page 478
Functions–Transforms Model of Radio......Page 481
Cognitive Electronics......Page 482
When Should a Radio Transition Toward Cognition?......Page 483
Radio Evolution Toward the CRA......Page 484
Industrial-Strength CR Design Rules......Page 485
Summary and Future Directions......Page 487
Exercises......Page 488
References......Page 489
Introduction......Page 490
A Formal Model of a CR Network......Page 492
Analysis Objectives......Page 495
Establishing Expected Behavior......Page 496
Network Stability......Page 497
A Dynamical Systems Approach......Page 498
Fixed Points and Solutions to CR Networks......Page 499
Establishing Optimality......Page 500
Convergence and Stability......Page 501
Lyapunov’s Direct Method for Discrete Time Systems......Page 502
Analysis Insights......Page 503
Standard Interference Function Model......Page 504
Markov Model Analysis Insights......Page 506
Absorbing Markov Chains......Page 507
Absorbing Markov Chains Analysis Insights......Page 508
Applying Game Theory to the Analysis Problem......Page 509
Utility Functions......Page 510
Normal Form Game Model......Page 511
Steady States......Page 513
NE Existence......Page 514
Desirability......Page 515
Convergence......Page 516
Potential Games......Page 518
Exact Potential Games......Page 519
Ordinal Potential Games......Page 521
Convergence......Page 522
Designing Potential Game Networks......Page 523
Supermodular Games......Page 527
Fixed Points in Supermodular Games......Page 528
Random Sampling......Page 529
Stability......Page 530
Analysis......Page 531
Validation......Page 532
The Value of Game Theory to CR Networks......Page 533
Simplified Compatibility Analysis......Page 534
Summary......Page 536
Exercises......Page 537
References......Page 538
Introduction......Page 541
Beamforming System......Page 542
Transmit Diversity System......Page 543
Spatial Multiplexing......Page 544
Criteria Used for Equivalent Data Modulation......Page 545
Criteria Used for Equivalent Frequency Efficiency......Page 546
Cognitive Capability in an MA System......Page 547
Structure of the CR in an MA System......Page 549
Primary User Present in the Current Channel......Page 550
Radio Environment Observation......Page 551
Spectrum-Sensing Method......Page 552
DOA Estimation......Page 553
Antenna Correlation Measurement......Page 554
Eigenvalue-Based Detection Method Using Multiple Antennas......Page 555
Environmental Parameters......Page 556
Transmission Control Parameters......Page 557
PU present in the same channel......Page 558
Application to Next-Generation Wireless Communications......Page 559
Summary......Page 561
References......Page 562
Introduction......Page 563
Opportunistic Spectrum Access Using Policies......Page 564
Benefits of a Policy-Based Approach......Page 565
neXt-Generation Spectrum Policy Architecture......Page 567
Declarative Policy Language......Page 569
Logic Programming Rules......Page 570
Returning Constraints for Underspecified Requests......Page 571
Stateless Policy Engine......Page 572
SRI Spectrum Policy Language......Page 573
Ontologies......Page 574
A Note on Notation......Page 576
Policy Examples......Page 577
Requests and Replies......Page 578
SRI Policy Engine......Page 579
Reasoning with Constraints......Page 580
Implementation in Maude......Page 581
Advantages of Using Maude......Page 583
Encoding Policies in Maude......Page 584
Components......Page 586
SRI Policy Tool......Page 588
Experimental Results......Page 593
Operations......Page 594
Disallowing Policies......Page 595
Summary......Page 596
References......Page 597
Introduction......Page 599
Spectrum-Sensing Considerations......Page 600
The Hidden-Node Problem......Page 601
General Spectrum Sensing......Page 602
Constrained Spectrum Sensing......Page 604
Spectrum-Sensing Solutions......Page 605
Energy Detection......Page 606
Cycle Detection......Page 607
Archetypal Example......Page 608
The Statistical Nature of Communication Signals......Page 610
Stationary and Nonstationary Signals......Page 611
The Cyclic Autocorrelation Function......Page 612
Extensions for Complex-Valued Signals......Page 613
Noise and Interference Tolerance......Page 614
Near-Universal Applicability......Page 615
The Frequency Smoothing Method......Page 617
The Strip Spectral-Correlation Analyzer......Page 618
Cycle-Frequency Detection......Page 619
Joint Cycle-Frequency Detection......Page 620
Energy Detection......Page 621
General Approach to Sensing Algorithm Development......Page 622
ATSC DTV......Page 623
The Cellular TDMA Family of Signals......Page 626
The GSM Family of Signals......Page 628
802.11b DSSS......Page 630
802.11b CCK......Page 633
Summary......Page 635
Exercises......Page 636
References......Page 638
Introduction......Page 641
The Use of Control Channels......Page 643
Blind Rendezvous......Page 644
Random Rendezvous......Page 645
Sequence-Based Rendezvous......Page 646
Link Maintenance and the Effect of Primary Users......Page 649
References......Page 650
Introduction......Page 651
The Persistent Goal of Spectrum Management......Page 652
The Promise of Dynamic Spectrum Access......Page 654
The Limitations of Policy......Page 656
The Challenges in Managing DSA......Page 657
The DSA Spectrum Management Alternative......Page 658
The Ten Components......Page 659
Modeling Spectral Consumption and Signal Space......Page 661
Underlay Masks......Page 662
Propagation Models......Page 663
Directional Vectors Used for Power and Propagation Maps......Page 664
Position, Area, and Volume......Page 666
Protocol and Policy......Page 667
Time Models......Page 668
Modeling Transmitter and Receiver Rights......Page 669
Compliance and Computing-Compatible Reuse......Page 670
Underlay Margin Computations......Page 672
Constraining Point Computations......Page 673
Observations and Theorems for Protecting Broadcasts......Page 674
Encoding Spectrum and Underlay Masks for Transmission......Page 675
Encoding Directional Vectors for Transmission......Page 677
Concise Vector Examples......Page 679
Signals......Page 682
Propagation......Page 683
Antennas......Page 684
Operating Regions......Page 685
Broadcaster......Page 686
Applications......Page 688
Dynamic Spectrum Management......Page 689
Secondary Spectrum Markets......Page 690
Future Research and Work......Page 691
References......Page 692
Introduction......Page 694
Modulation......Page 695
Error-Control Codes......Page 696
Performance Measures for a Code-Modulation Library......Page 697
Special Subsets of the Code-Modulation Library......Page 701
Receiver Statistics......Page 703
Overview of the Initial Power Adjustment......Page 704
Description of the Initial Power-Adjustment Protocol......Page 706
Performance Evaluation of the Initial P-ADJ Protocol......Page 708
Performance Results for Systems with Unlimited Power......Page 710
Performance Results for Systems with Limited Power......Page 712
Time Required for Initial Power Adjustment......Page 714
Adaptive Transmission......Page 715
Protocol Throughput Performance for Dynamic Channels......Page 717
Time-Varying Propagation Loss......Page 718
Time-Varying Interference......Page 720
Summary......Page 723
Exercises......Page 724
References......Page 725
Introduction......Page 727
Current CN Research......Page 731
Observe......Page 734
Orient......Page 735
Decide......Page 737
Act......Page 739
Research Holes and Future Directions......Page 740
References......Page 743
Introduction......Page 746
Definitions and Terminology......Page 750
Overview of the IEEE Standards Activities......Page 752
IEEE 802 Cognitive Radio-Related Activities......Page 754
802.22 Reference Architecture......Page 757
Bandwidth Scalability......Page 760
802.22 MAC Layer Overview......Page 761
Incumbent Sensing Measurement and Detection......Page 762
IEEE P1900.1: Terminology and Concepts for NG Radio Systems and Spectrum Management......Page 763
IEEE P1900.2: Recommended Practice for Interference and Coexistence Analysis......Page 764
IEEE P1900.4: Architectural Building Blocks Enabling Network–Device Distributed Decision Making for Optimized Radio Resource Usage......Page 765
Additional Detail on the P1900.4 Standard......Page 766
Dynamic Spectrum Assignment......Page 771
Dynamic Spectrum Access......Page 772
Distributed Radio Resource Usage Optimization......Page 773
Potential for New Products and Systems......Page 775
US Department of Defense......Page 776
References......Page 777
Discussion and Summary of CR Technologies......Page 779
Services Offered to Wireless Networks Through Infrastructure......Page 786
Cellular Infrastructure Support to Cognition......Page 787
Data Radios......Page 788
Cognitive Services Offered through Infrastructure......Page 789
References......Page 791
Glossary......Page 792
Index......Page 803