Cover
COASTAL
WETLANDS: AN INTEGRATED ECOSYSTEM APPROACH
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
List of Reviewers
1 -
Coastal Wetlands: A Synthesis
1. Introduction
2. A Synthesis of Coastal Wetlands Science
2.1 Geography
2.2 Geomorphic Evolution Under Past Climate Change: How Present Coastal Wetlands Came to Be
2.3 The Influence of Vegetation on the Geomorphic Evolution With Climate Change
2.4 The Stabilizing Role of Vegetation
2.5 Coastal Evolution and State Change
2.6 The Role of Physical Disturbances
2.7 The Role of Animals (Herbivores and Carnivores)
2.8 Observations Across Ecosystem Types
2.9 The Human Impact
2.10 Tidal Wetland Metabolism and the Global Coastal Ocean Carbon Cycle
2.11 Modeling and Predictions
3. Human Health and Coastal Wetland Socioeconomics
4. Coastal Wetlands Are Essential for Our Quality of Life
5. Blue Carbon and Human Well-Being
Acknowledgments
References
Part I - Coastal Wetlands As Ecosystems
2 -
The Morphology and Development of Coastal Wetlands in the Tropics
1. Introduction
2. Mangrove and Associated Wetlands
3. Environmental Settings
4. Sedimentation and the Development of Wetlands
5. Sea Level Controls on Wetland Development
6. Sea Level Change and the Diversification of West Indian Mangroves
7. Sea Level Change and Mangrove Habitat Evolution in the Pacific
8. Impact of Future Climate and Sea Level Change
9. Summary and Concluding Remarks
References
3 -
Temperate Coastal Wetlands: Morphology, Sediment Processes, and Plant Communities
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FACTORS CONTROLLING SALT MARSH DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Models for Salt Marsh Formation (Transition From Tidal Flat to Salt Marsh)
2.2 Models for Vertical Dynamics
2.3 Models for Lateral Dynamics
3. SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF VARIATION
3.1 Spatial Zonation of Vegetation
3.2 Changes Over Time
4. GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION
4.1 Northern Europe
4.2 Eastern North America
4.2.1 Bay of Fundy
4.2.2 New England
4.2.3 Coastal Plain
4.3 Western North America
4.4 Mediterranean
4.5 Eastern Asia
4.6 Australasia
4.7 South America
5. HUMAN IMPACTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE
5.1 Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
5.2 Alterations in Sediment Transport
5.3 Direct Human Transformations
6. SUMMARY
References
4 -
Northern Polar Coastal Wetlands: Development, Structure, and Land Use
1. Introduction
2. Geology/Geomorphology
3. Oceanography
4. Climate
5. Structure of Arctic Coastal Wetlands
6. Vegetation of Northern Polar Coastal Wetlands
7. Fauna of Northern Polar Coastal Wetlands
7.1 Invertebrate Fauna
7.1.1 Invertebrate Fauna of Coastal Saline Areas
7.1.2 Invertebrate Fauna of Near-Coast, Freshwater Areas
7.2 Vertebrate Fauna Using Coastal Wetlands
7.2.1 Avifauna
7.2.2 Mammalian Fauna
8. Environmental Hazards
9. Conclusions and Research Priorities
References
Further Reading
Part II - Physical Processes
5 -
Salt-Marsh Ecogeomorphological Dynamics and Hydrodynamic Circulation
1. Introduction
2. Intertidal Ecogeomorphological Evolution
2.1 Poisson Hydrodynamic Model
2.2 Model of Channel Network Early Development
2.3 Model of Marsh Platform Evolution
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
6 -
Geomorphology of Tidal Courses and Depressions
1. Introduction
2. Classifications
2.1 Proposed Tidal Course Classification
2.2 Proposed Tidal Depression Classification
3. Tidal Courses
3.1 Geomorphology of Tidal Courses
3.2 Course Networks and Drainage Systems
3.3 Origin of Tidal Courses
3.4 Course Evolution
4. Tidal Depressions
4.1 Geomorphology of Tidal Depressions
4.2 Origin of Tidal Depressions
4.3 Evolution of Tidal Depressions
5. Summary
Acknowledgments
References
7 -
Methods to Estimate Heat Balance in Coastal Wetlands
1. The Heat Balance Equation
1.1 The Net Radiation
1.2 The Bottom Heat Flux
1.3 The Sensible and Latent Heat Flux
2. Mid Latitudes
3. Low Latitudes
4. High Latitudes
5. Summary
References
Further Reading
8 -
Hydrodynamics and Modeling of Water Flow in Coastal Wetlands
1. Introduction—Importance of Understanding Hydrodynamics and Water Flows in Coastal Wetlands
2. Types of Wetland-Flow Interactions
3. Large-Scale Flows
3.1 River and Groundwater Flow
3.2 Tidal and Meteorologically Driven Flows
3.2.1 Flow Over Unvegetated Tidal Flats
3.2.2 Flow Within Tidal Creeks
3.2.3 Flows Over the Wetland Surface
4. Small-Scale Flows
4.1 Field Evidence
4.2 Flume Studies and Dynamic Vegetation-Flow Feedback
5. Modeling Flow Over Wetlands
6. Wave-Induced Flows and Interactions With Wetland Surfaces
7. Modeling Waves Over Wetlands
8. Tsunami Waves
9. Scaling Challenges
Acknowledgments
References
9 -
Mathematical Modeling of Tidal Flow Over Saltmarshes and Tidal Flats With Applications to the Venice Lagoon
1. Introduction
2. Wetting and Drying and the Dynamics of Very Shallow Flows
3. Wind and Wind Waves
4. Saltmarsh Vegetation
5. Saltmarshes and Tidal Flats Morphodynamics
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Part III - Tidal Flats
10 -
Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Tidal Flats
1. Introduction
2. Basic Conditions for the Formation of Tidal Flats
3. Zonation in Sedimentation and Flat Surface Morphology
3.1 Vertical Sediment Sequences
3.2 Sediment and Morphology on Intertidal Mudflats
3.3 Sediment and Morphology on Mixed Sand–Mud Flats
3.4 Sediment and Morphology on Sand Flats
4. Factors and Processes
4.1 Influences of Quantity and Composition of Sediment Supply
4.2 Sedimentation During Tidal Cycles
4.3 Long-Term Accretion–Erosion Cycles
4.4 Tidal Creek Systems
4.5 Biological Processes
5. Summary
Acknowledgments
References
11 -
Intertidal Flats: Form and Function
1. Introduction
1.1 Intertidal Systems
1.2 Ecological Terminology
1.3 Ecosystem Services
2. Engineering the Intertidal
2.1 The Physical Context
2.2 Sandy Systems
2.3 Muddy Systems
2.4 Functional Characterization
2.5 Patterns of Life
3. Biodiversity Impacts
4. System Monitoring
4.1 Remote Sensing
4.2 Effects of Disturbance
5. Future Shock: Current Challenges
5.1 Invasive Nonnative Species
5.2 Climate Change
Acknowledgments
References
12 -
Biogeochemical Dynamics of Coastal Tidal Flats
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRANSPORT PROCESSES ON INTERTIDAL FLATS
2.1 Skin Circulation
2.2 Body Circulation
3. MICROBIAL PROCESSES
4. ORGANIC MATTER SOURCES AND TRANSFORMATIONS
5. NITROGEN CYCLE
5.1 Nitrogen Fixation
5.2 Benthic Microalgal N Assimilation
5.3 Benthic Microalgal N Uptake and Storage
5.4 Nitrification and Nitrate Reduction
5.5 Exchange of Dissolved Nitrogen Between the Sediment and the Water Column
5.6 N Cycle Summary
6. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
7. SILICON CYCLE
8. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Acknowledgments
References
Part IV - Marshes and Seagrasses
13 -
Productivity and Biogeochemical Cycling in Seagrass Ecosystems
1. Introduction
1.1 Primary Productivity
1.2 Fate of Primary Productivity—Export
1.3 Fate of Primary Productivity—Burial and Seagrass Blue Carbon
2. Sediment Biogeochemistry—Modified by Seagrasses
2.1 Sulfide Intrusion in Seagrasses
2.2 Microscale Effects
2.3 Nutrient Cycling—Importance of Root Uptake
3. Multiple Stressors and Biogeochemical Conditions in Seagrass Meadows
4. Human Pressures and Effects on Biogeochemistry
5. Future Perspectives and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
14 -
Tidal Salt Marshes: Sedimentology and Geomorphology
1. Introduction
2. Contexts for Tidal Salt Marsh Formation
2.1 Tidal Regime
2.2 Coastal Configuration and Geomorphological Setting
2.3 Fine Sediment Regime
2.4 Sea Level History
2.5 Anthropogenic Influences
3. Sedimentology
3.1 Characteristic Sediments
3.2 Sedimentary Structures
3.3 Stratigraphy and Facies Models
4. Tidal Salt Marsh Landform Development
4.1 Overview of Landform Components
4.2 Sedimentation on the Salt Marsh Platform
4.3 Tidal Channel Systems
4.4 Morphodynamics of the Salt Marsh–Tidal Flat Transition
5. Salt Marsh Morphodynamics and Resilience to Sea Level Rise
Acknowledgments
References
15 -
Ecosystem Structure of Tidal Saline Marshes
1. Introduction
2. Saline Marsh Communities
2.1 Emergent Vegetation
2.2 Benthic Algae
2.3 Nekton
2.4 Reptiles and Amphibians
2.5 Birds
2.6 Mammals
3. Interactions Among Communities
3.1 Effects of Animals on Emergent Vegetation Distribution
3.2 Emergent Vegetation as Animal Habitat
3.3 Nursery Function
3.4 Saline Marsh Food Webs
3.4.1 Species Interactions
3.4.2 Primary Producers
3.4.3 Indirect Interactions Among Species
References
16 -
Salt Marsh Biogeochemistry—An Overview
1. Introduction
2. Carbon
2.1 Inputs
2.1.1 Photoautotrophy
2.1.2 Chemoautotrophy
2.1.3 Tidal Inputs—Sediment Deposition
2.2 Transformations
2.2.1 Aerobic Mineralization
2.2.2 Anaerobic Mineralization
2.2.3 Carbonate Mineral Formation
2.3 Losses
2.3.1 Organic C Export
2.3.2 Inorganic C Export
2.3.3 Burial
3. Nitrogen
3.1 Inputs
3.1.1 N-Fixation
3.1.2 Atmospheric Deposition
3.1.3 Groundwater Inputs
3.1.4 Tidal Inputs/Outputs
3.2 Transformations
3.2.1 Autotrophic Uptake
3.2.2 Mineralization and Immobilization
3.2.3 Nitrification
3.2.4 Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium
3.3 Losses
3.3.1 Gaseous Losses of N—Denitrification and Anammox
3.3.2 Burial
4. Iron and Sulfur
4.1 Inputs
4.1.1 Dissolved and Atmospheric Inputs
4.1.2 Sediment Deposition
4.2 Transformations
4.2.1 Iron and Sulfur Reduction
4.2.2 Formation and Oxidation of Fe–S Minerals
4.2.3 Iron Oxidation
4.3 Losses
4.3.1 Tidal Export
4.3.2 Atmospheric Losses
4.3.3 Burial
5. Phosphorus
5.1 Inputs and Tidal Exchanges
5.1.1 Tidal Exchanges—Particulate P
5.1.2 Tidal Exchanges of Dissolved P
5.2 Transformations
5.2.1 Autotrophic Uptake and Mineralization of P
5.2.2 Geochemical Cycling of P
5.3 Losses
5.3.1 Burial of P
6. Marshes in Transition
7. Directions for Future Work
List of Abbreviations
References
17 -
The Role of Freshwater Flows on Salt Marsh Growth and Development
1. Introduction
2. Freshwater Routes in Salt Marshes
2.1 Stream Flow
2.2 Groundwater Flow
2.3 Rainfall
2.4 Surface Flow
3. Associated Processes
3.1 Nutrient Transport
3.2 Sediment Transport
3.3 Organic Matter Transport
3.4 Pollutants
3.5 Salinity Changes
3.5.1 Seed Germination
3.5.2 Seedling Growth
3.5.3 Plant Growth and Reproduction
4. Hydrological Impacts in Salt Marshes
5. Techniques for the Study of Marsh Hydrology
6. Implications of Freshwater Flows for Salt Marsh Management
7. Implications of Freshwater Flows for Salt Marsh Creation
8. The Ecohydrological Approach in Salt Marsh Studies
9. The Way Ahead—Problems and Challenges
References
18 -
Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HYDROGEOMORPHIC SETTING
3. BIODIVERSITY
3.1 Plants
3.2 Animals
4. PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND NUTRIENT CYCLING
5. THREATS AND FUTURE PROSPECTUS
References
Further Reading
19 -
Biogeochemistry of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CARBON BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
2.1 Carbon Inputs
2.2 Carbon Outputs
2.2.1 Exports of CO2, DIC, DOC, and POC
2.2.2 Methane Emissions and Export
3. ORGANIC CARBON PRESERVATION AND METABOLISM
3.1 Carbon Quality
3.2 Aerobic Respiration and Carbon Preservation
3.3 Pathways of Anaerobic Respiration
3.4 Methane Regulation by Other Anaerobic and Aerobic Microbial Processes
4. NITROGEN BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
4.1 Nitrogen Exchanges
4.2 Nitrogen Transformations
4.3 Nutrient Regulation of Plant Production
5. PHOSPHORUS BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
6. SILICON BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
7. RESPONSES AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO GLOBAL CHANGE
7.1 Biogeochemical Effects of Saltwater Intrusion
7.2 Radiative Forcing
8. CONCLUDING COMMENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
References
Part V - Mangroves
20 -
Biogeomorphology of Mangroves
1. Introduction
2. Biogeomorphology
2.1 Mangrove Biogeomorphic Values
2.2 Mangrove Biogeomorphic Processes
3. Geomorphic Settings
3.1 Estuaries and Deltas
3.2 Lagoon Settings
3.3 Low Island Settings
4. Mangrove Biogeomorphic Response to Sea Level Change
4.1 Rising Sea Level Sequences
4.2 Rising-Highstand-Falling Sequences
4.3 Falling Sea Level Trends
4.4 Stable Sea Level
5. Opportunistic and Deterministic Biogeomorphology
6. Long-Term Mangrove Biogeomorphic Influences
6.1 Inland Settings
7. Conclusion
References
21 -
Mangrove Biogeochemistry at Local to Global Scales Using Ecogeomorphic Approaches
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ECOGEOMORPHOLOGY OF MANGROVES
3. GEOCHEMICAL MODEL
4. NET ECOSYSTEM NUTRIENT EXCHANGE
5. CARBON EXCHANGE
5.1 Exchange With the Atmosphere
5.2 Net Tidal Exchange of Detritus
5.3 Soil Nutrient Accumulation and Wood Production
6. NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS EXCHANGE
6.1 Exchange With the Atmosphere
6.2 Net Tidal Exchange
6.3 Soil Nutrient Accumulation
7. GLOBAL CARBON ESTIMATES
7.1 Carbon Stocks
7.2 Reassessment of Inorganic Carbon Exchange With Estuaries
8. DISTURBANCE MODEL
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Part VI - Coastal Wetland Restoration and Management
22 -
Tidal Marsh Creation
1. Introduction
2. Principles and Techniques of Tidal Marsh Creation
2.1 Site Selection
2.2 Conceptual Design
2.3 Hydrology
2.4 Soil
2.5 Establishing Vegetation
3. Evaluating Functional Equivalence of Created Tidal Marshes
3.1 Vegetation
3.2 Fauna and Food Webs
3.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
4. Maximizing Ecosystem Services of Created Marshes
5. Summary
References
23 -
Salt Marsh Restoration
1. Introduction
2. Setting Objectives
2.1 Context
2.2 Biodiversity Values
2.3 Mitigation
2.4 Monitoring
2.4.1 What to Monitor
3. Planning for the Future
3.1 Coastal Squeeze
3.2 Managed Realignment
4. Addressing Causes and Not Symptoms
5. Managing Disturbance
5.1 Restoring Hydrology
5.2 Managing Non-Native Plants
5.3 Introduced Fauna
5.4 Mosquitoes
5.5 Grazing
5.6 Pollution
5.6.1 Heavy Metals
5.6.2 Nutrients
5.6.3 Oil
5.6.4 Agricultural Chemicals
5.6.5 The Drift Line
5.7 Damage Caused by Vehicles
6. Conflicting Priorities
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
References
Further Reading
24 -
Methods and Criteria for Successful Mangrove Forest Rehabilitation
1. Introduction
2. General Site Selection for Rehabilitation
3. Specific Site Selection for Rehabilitation
4. Establishing Success Criteria
5. Monitoring and Reporting Success
6. Functionality of Rehabilitated Mangrove Forests
7. Future Studies
8. Summary
References
Further Reading
25 -
Evaluating Restored Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
1. Introduction
2. Motivation and Construction Methods for Restoration
3. Evaluation Criteria for Restored Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
4. Restored Tidal Freshwater Wetlands of the Anacostia River, Washington, DC
4.1 Characteristics of Restored and Reference Tidal Freshwater Wetland Sites
4.2 Evaluation of Success of Restored Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
5. Conclusions and Implications
5.1 Restoration of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands in Urban Landscapes and Selection of Urban Reference Sites
5.2 Establishment of Vegetation
5.3 Control of Nonnative Species
5.4 Implications for Restoration of Tidal Freshwater Wetlands
References
Part VII - Coastal Wetland Sustainability
26 -
The Shifting Saltmarsh-Mangrove Ecotone in Australasia and the Americas
1. Introduction
2. Distribution/Geomorphic Settings—Where Do Mangrove and Saltmarsh Coexist?
2.1 Mangrove Distribution
2.2 Saltmarsh Distribution
2.3 Coexisting Mangrove and Saltmarsh
3. Long-Term Dynamics
3.1 Tropical Northern Australia
3.2 Southeastern Australia
3.3 Western Atlantic–Caribbean Region
4. Recent Interactions
4.1 Air Photographic Evidence of Mangrove-Saltmarsh Dynamics in Southeastern Australia
4.2 Saltwater Intrusion in Northern Australia
4.3 Western Atlantic–Gulf of Mexico
5. Stressors Controlling Delimitation of Mangrove
5.1 Geomorphic and Hydrological Controls
5.2 Climatic Controls
5.3 Physicochemical Factors
5.4 Biotic Considerations and Interactions
5.5 Ecosystem Effects
6. Conclusions
References
27 -
The Value of Coastal Wetland Ecosystem Services
1. Introduction
2. The Challenge of Valuing Coastal Wetlands
3. Valuation Examples
4. Spatial Variability and the Value of Coastal Wetlands
5. Valuing Coastal Wetlands Within a Seascape
6. Conclusions
References
28 -
Conservation of Blue Carbon Ecosystems for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
1. What Is Blue Carbon?
2. Ecology of Blue Carbon Ecosystems
3. Carbon Cycling in Blue Carbon Ecosystems
4. Factors Influencing Carbon Storage in Blue Carbon Ecosystems
5. Role of Blue Carbon Ecosystems for Climate Change Adaptation
6. Disturbance of Blue Carbon Ecosystems and Associated Emissions
7. Conservation and Restoration of Blue Carbon Ecosystems as a Strategy for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
8. Future of Blue Carbon
References
29 -
Toward a Salt Marsh Management Plan for New York City: Recommendations for Strategic Restoration and Protection
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH
2.1 Field Assessments
2.2 Historic and Landscape Analysis
2.3 Future Inundation Modeling
2.4 Conditions and Vulnerability Indices
3. SALT MARSH ASSESSMENT RESULTS
3.1 The Condition of Our Wetlands
3.2 The Threats to Our Wetlands
4. STRATEGIES FOR ADDRESSING WETLAND THREATS
5. PRIORITIZATION OF RESTORATION AND PROTECTION STRATEGIES
6. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
6.1 Strategy 1: Protect and Create Pathways for Migration
6.1.1 Action: Protect Land in Tidal Wetland Adjacent Area Through Transfer, Acquisition, Easements, and Regulation
6.1.2 Action: Transfer Public Parcels With Wetlands to New York City Parks
6.1.3 Action: Acquire and Establish Conservation Easements
6.1.4 Action: Comply with Wetland Adjacent Area Regulations
6.1.5 Action: Reclaim Future Flooded Hard Surfaces That Prevent Migration
6.2 Strategy 2: Protect and Restore Existing Marsh
6.2.1 Action: Apply a Thin Layer of Sediment to Elevate Marshes
6.2.2 Action: Restore Salt Marsh Where Prolonged Ponding Has Expanded or Created Pools
6.2.3 Action: Restore Eroded Marsh Edge
6.3 Strategy 3: Other Ongoing Restoration Opportunities, Actions, and Recommendations
6.3.1 Action: Remove Debris and Trash
6.3.2 Action: Excavate Historic Fill
6.3.3 Action: Remove Tidal Barriers
7. SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS
Acknowledgments
References
30 -
Living Shorelines for Coastal Resilience
1. Introduction to Living Shorelines
2. Living Shorelines in Estuarine Ecosystems
2.1 Definition and Types of Living Shorelines
2.2 Physical Processes and Natural Shorelines
2.3 Ecological Function of Natural Shoreline Habitats
2.4 Impact of Traditional Shoreline Hardening
2.4.1 Hydrodynamics and Sediment
2.4.2 Impacts on Vegetation
2.4.3 Impacts on Fauna
2.4.4 Cumulative Impacts
3. Living Shoreline Implementation and Assessment
3.1 Wave Energy and Geomorphology
3.2 Development of Marsh Vegetation and Sediment
3.3 Oyster Reefs and Living Shorelines
3.4 Faunal Utilization of Living Shorelines
3.5 Regulatory and Social Drivers
4. Climate Adaptation and Living Shorelines
5. Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
31 -
Mangrove Management: Challenges and Guidelines
1. Mangrove Ecosystem Services
2. Mangrove Losses
3. Challenges to Mangrove Management
3.1 Lack of Awareness of the Value of Mangrove Ecosystems
3.2 Uncertain Property Regimes
3.3 Interagency Conflicts and Jurisdictional Overlaps
3.4 Off-Site Impacts and Linkages
3.5 Climate Change and Sea Level Rise
3.6 Insufficient or Inappropriate Community Involvement
3.7 Lack of Sustainable Funding for Conservation Efforts
3.8 Lack of Understanding and Misuse of the Best Available Science
4. International Guidelines for Mangrove Management
4.1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
4.2 International Tropical Timber Organization
4.3 International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems
4.4 Ramsar Convention
4.5 Choluteca Declaration
5. Specific Strategies
5.1 Conservation via Protected Areas
5.2 Community-Based Management
5.3 Regulatory Measures
5.4 Mosquito Control
5.5 Silviculture Management
5.6 Restoration and Rehabilitation
6. Summary—Moving Forward
References
Subject Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
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P
R
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V
W
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Z
Geographic Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
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