Chromium in Plants and Environment (Environmental Science and Engineering)

✍ Scribed by Nitish Kumar (editor), Clemens Walther (editor), Dharmendra K. Gupta (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 481
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This edited book brings together a diverse group of environmental science, sustainability, and health researchers to address the challenges posed by global mass poisoning caused by chromium contamination of soil and plants. In recent years, contamination of the environment by chromium has become a major concern. Chromium is a non-degradable, harmful, and toxic pollutant which negatively affects the environment. It is unique among the heavy metals found in industrial wastewater and sewage and sludge, as it may exist as a trivalent cation and as anion in the hexavalent state in the pH range of agricultural soils. It is used on a large scale in many different industries, including metallurgy, electroplating, production of paints and pigments, tanning, wood preservation, chemical production, and pulp and paper production. These industries are contributing larger amount of chromium, which can ultimately have significant adverse effects on biological and ecological activities of ecosystem. Chromium enters the food chain through consumption of plant material. A high concentration of chromium has been found to be harmful to vegetation. As the chromium concentration in plants increases, it adversely affects several biological parameters and eventually renders the soil barren.

The book sheds light on this global environmental issue and proposes solutions to contamination through multi-disciplinary approaches and case studies from different parts of the world.

This book is a valuable resource to students, academicians, researchers, and environmental professionals who are doing field work on chromium contamination throughout the world.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
1 Health Impacts of Cr Contamination in Soil
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fate and Source of Chromium in Terrestrial Ecosystems
1.3 Chromium in Terrestrial Ecosystems
1.3.1 Chromium Contamination in Plants
1.3.2 Chromium Contamination in Animals
1.3.3 Chromium in the Human Body
1.4 Effects of Chromium Exposure on Human Health
References
2 Speciation, Chemistry, Geogenic Formation and Dispersion of Chromium in Groundwater
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Chromium Chemistry
2.2.1 Trivalent Chromium, Cr(III)
2.2.2 Hexavalent Chromium, Cr(VI)
2.3 Natural Occurrence of Cr(VI) in Ground Water
2.3.1 Aquifer Depth Effect on Chromium Concentration
2.4 Concluding Remarks
References
3 Chromium: Sources, Speciation, Toxicity, and Chemistry
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Yeast
3.3 Mammals
3.3.1 Essential Element
3.3.2 Transport
3.3.3 Toxicity
3.4 Biological Activity
References
4 A Critical Evaluation of Chromium(III) Ecotoxicity to Aquatic and Terrestrial Plants
4.1 Introduction
4.2 An Ecotoxicological Perspective of the Chemistry of Cr(III)
4.3 Cr(III) Transport and Distribution
4.3.1 Cr(III) Uptake
4.3.2 Cr(III) Translocation and Accumulation
4.4 Biological Effects
4.4.1 Effects on Plant Morphology
4.4.2 Reproduction and Seed Germination
4.4.3 Effect of Cr(III) on Photosynthesis and Chloroplast Structure
4.4.4 Gas Exchanges
4.4.5 Alteration of Organelles and Cellular Functions
4.4.6 Effects of Cr(III) on Mineral Nutrition
4.4.7 ROS Production, Lipid Peroxidation and Antioxidative Mechanisms
4.4.8 Regulation of Phytochelatins, Metallothioneins and Metal Tolerance Proteins
4.5 Conclusions
References
5 Antioxidant Defence: A Key Mechanism of Chromium Tolerance
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Plants Produce ROS as a Result of Their Metabolism
5.3 The Effects of Chromium on Oxidative Stress in Plants
5.4 Non-enzymatic Antioxidants
5.4.1 Ascorbate
5.4.2 Tocopherol
5.4.3 Components of an Enzyme
5.4.4 Superoxide Dismutases (SOD)
5.4.5 Catalases (CAT)
5.4.6 AsA-GSH Cycle Enzymes
5.4.7 Monodehydroascorbate Reductase (MDHAR) and Dehydroascorbate Reductase (DHAR)
5.4.8 Glutathione Reductase (GR)
5.4.9 Glutathione Peroxidases
5.4.10 Glutathione S-Transferases (GST)
5.5 Heavy Metal Stress Exposes Plants to a Range of Antioxidant Defence Mechanisms
5.6 Antioxidant Response
5.7 Chromium-Mediated Alteration in the Enzymatic Antioxidant System
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 Employing Microbes for Cr Alleviation: A Reliant Harmless Approach
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Incidence of Hexavalent Cr(VI) on Human Health
6.3 Microbial Remediation
6.4 Biosorption of Chromium(VI)
6.5 Hexavalent Chromium to Tetravalent Chromium Reduction
6.6 Factor Affecting Bioremediation
6.6.1 Availability of Nutrients
6.6.2 Environmental Factors
6.7 Future Prospects
6.8 Conclusion
References
7 Genetic Engineering for Chromium Removal
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Genetic Engineering Organisms Involved in the Bioremediation of Cr
7.2.1 Bacteria-Mediated Cr Removal
7.2.2 Plants-Mediated Cr Removal
7.2.3 Other Organisms Used for Cr Removal
7.3 Conclusion
References
8 Chromium Dynamics in the Soil-Plant Continuum
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Role of Metal in Plant Nutrient Dynamics
8.3 Heavy Metal Sources and Toxicity
8.4 Chromium Sources and Toxicity
8.5 Chromium Pollution is a Necessary Evil?
8.5.1 Steel Industry
8.5.2 Wooden Industry
8.5.3 Leather Industries
8.5.4 Medical Industries
8.6 Effect of Chromium Toxicity on Soil Health
8.7 Chromium Chemistry in Soil
8.8 Factor Affecting Chromium Availability
8.8.1 Effect of Organic Matter on Chromium Bioavailability
8.8.2 Effect of pH, Metals, Cations and Anions on Chromium Bioavailability
8.9 Management of Chromium Toxicity
8.9.1 Immobilization Through Organic and Inorganic Substance
8.9.2 Bioremediation
8.10 Future Suggestions/Research
8.11 Epilogue
References
9 Toxicity of Hexavalent Chromium: Review
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Ubiquitous Forms of Chromium in Environment
9.3 Environmental Chromium Cycle
9.3.1 Source of Cr(III)
9.3.2 Oxidation of Cr(III)
9.3.3 Migration of Cr(VI)
9.4 Toxicity Effect of Cr(VI)
9.4.1 Human Health Effect
9.4.2 Effect on Animals
9.4.3 Effect on Plants
9.5 Mitigation of Hexavalent Chromium
9.5.1 Physiochemical Remediation
9.5.2 Biological Remediation
9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
10 Health Risk Linked to Cr Toxicity in Food and Environment
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Physiochemical Properties
10.3 Geology of Chromium
10.4 Source of Exposure
10.5 Pharmacokinetics
10.6 Mechanism of Toxicity
10.7 Health Risks Linked with Chromium Exposure in the Food
10.7.1 Absorption of Chromium in the Gut
10.7.2 Bioavailability of Chromium in Food
10.7.3 Dietary Sources of Chromium
10.7.4 Chromium Levels in Food and Drinking Water
10.7.5 Effects of Chromium in Food
10.7.6 Interactions with Minerals and Nutrients in Food
10.8 Health Risks Linked with Chromium Exposure in the Environment
10.8.1 Toxic Effect of Chromium in Human
10.8.2 Chromium and Antimicrobial Resistance
10.8.3 Chromium Induced Genotoxicity
10.8.4 Chromium Induced Hepatotoxicity
10.8.5 Effects on Immune Response
10.8.6 Chromium Induced Allergic Reactions
10.8.7 Skin Allergy
10.8.8 Effects on Macrophages
10.9 Toxic Effects of Chromium in Microorganisms
10.10 Toxic Effects of Chromium in Plants
10.11 Prevention and Control of Cr Toxicity in Food and Environment
10.11.1 Exogenous Salicylic Acid Remediation of Chromium Toxicity in Rice
10.11.2 Chemoprotection by N-Acetylcysteine
10.11.3 Soil Metal Detoxification
10.11.4 Cleaning Chromium Pollution from Aquatic Environments
10.11.5 Removal of Chromium from Wastewater
10.12 Conclusion
References
11 Phytoremediation of Chromium from Soil and Water
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Chromium in the Environment and Its Toxicity
11.3 Chromium in Soil-Water-Plant Relationship
11.4 Phytoremediation of Chromium Using Green Plants, Algae and Other Microbes
11.4.1 Phycoremediation
11.4.2 Mycoremediation
11.4.3 Chelate-Based Remediation of Chromium by Plants & Phytosiderophores
11.4.4 Phytoremediation Techniques for Chromium Removal
11.4.5 Genetically Engineered Microorganisms and Phytoremediation
11.4.6 Phytoremediation Approaches Using Chromium Tolerant Plants, Hyperaccumulators and Aquatic Macrophytes
11.4.7 Biosorption for Effective Removal of Chromium from Wastewater by Bioadsorbents
11.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
12 Toxicity of Rhizospheric Chromium Contaminated Soil and Its Phytoremediation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Speciation of Chromium and Toxicity
12.3 Hexavalent Chromium as a Toxic Heavy Metal
12.4 Sources of Chromium Release to Rhizospheric Soil
12.5 Mechanism of Rhizospheric Soil Chromium Toxicity
12.5.1 Abiotic Factors Determining Rhizospheric Soil Chromium Toxicity
12.5.2 Biotic Factors Determining Rhizospheric Soil Chromium Toxicity
12.6 Focus on Soil Chromium Toxicity in India
12.7 Overview of Toxic Effects of Soil Chromium Contamination
12.8 Possible Techniques for Remediation of Soil Chromium Contamination
12.8.1 Physico-Chemical Methods for Remediation of Cr(VI) Contaminated Soils
12.8.2 Biological Approaches for Remediation of Cr Contaminated Soil
12.9 Phytoremediation as a Technique for Soil Chromium Remediation: Opportunities and Challenges
12.9.1 Selection of Appropriate Plants
12.9.2 Characteristics of the Rhizospheric Soil
12.9.3 Concentration and Nature of the Metal (Cr(VI))
12.9.4 Interaction of Rhizospheric Microbes
12.10 Socio-economic Aspects of Phytoremediation of Chromium Contaminated Rhizospheric Soil
12.11 Conclusion
References
13 Microbial Remediation Technologies for Chromium Removal: Mechanism, Challenges and Future Prospect
13.1 Environmental Pollution
13.2 Heavy Metals
13.3 Cr Contamination/Menace in India
13.4 Chromium (Cr): Occurrence, Speciation, and Fate into the Environment
13.5 Essentiality of Cr(III)
13.6 Origins of Cr Pollution
13.6.1 Natural Sources
13.6.2 Human Activities
13.7 Toxicity of Cr(VI)
13.7.1 Humans
13.7.2 Plants
13.7.3 Microorganisms
13.8 Cr Pollution Remediation Measures and Practices
13.8.1 Wastewater Treatment
13.8.2 Soil Remediation
13.9 Microbial Remediation Mechanisms and Technologies
13.9.1 Bioremediation
13.9.2 Types of Bioremediations
13.10 Fungal Bioremediation
13.11 Algal Bioremediation
13.12 Bacterial Bioremediation
13.13 Molecular Mechanisms for Bacterial Bioremediation of Cr(VI)
13.13.1 Adsorption by Functional Groups on the Surface of the Cell
13.13.2 Extracellular Precipitation/Reduction: Role of Extracellular Biopolymers
13.13.3 Accumulation of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) on Cell Envelope: Biosorption and Bioaccumulation
13.13.4 Biotransformation/Bioreduction
13.13.5 Transmembrane Efflux of Chromate
13.14 Challenges in Developing Cr Bioremediation Technology
13.15 Strategies to Develop Cr Bioremediation Technology
13.15.1 Microbial Immobilization Technology (MIT)
13.15.2 Genetic Engineering
13.15.3 Enhancement of Bioremediation
13.15.4 Bacterial Biofilm and Sequestration Through EPS for Cr(VI) Removal
13.15.5 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) for Eco-Remediation of Cr(VI)
13.15.6 Nano-Bioremediation (NBR) of Cr(VI): a Green Technology
13.16 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
14 Effects and Responses of Chromium on Plants
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Environment Concentrations and Sources of Chromium in the Air, Water, and Soil
14.3 Chromium’s Toxic Effects on Plants
14.4 Plant Chromium Uptake, Transport, and Distribution
14.4.1 Growth and Development
14.4.2 Germination of Seeds and Development of Seedlings
14.4.3 Root Growth
14.4.4 Stem Growth
14.4.5 Leaf Growth
14.4.6 Total Dry Matter Production
14.4.7 Yield
14.5 Effect on Photosynthetic Pigments and Carbon Assimilation
14.6 Changing the Balance of Nutrients as a Result
14.7 Water Balance as a Result of the Effect
14.8 Other Biochemical Effects
14.9 The Uptake and Translocation of Cr in Plants
14.10 Research Regarding the Effects of Cr Stress on Plants Has Recently Made Significant Advances
14.11 The Molecular Mechanisms by Which Cr is Detoxified in Plants
14.11.1 Avoidance
14.11.2 Antioxidant Response
14.11.3 Reduction of Cr(VI)–Cr(III)
14.11.4 An Approach to the Decontamination of Cr Using Phytoremediation
14.11.5 Phytoremediation by Hyperaccumulating Plants
14.12 Detoxification of Cr Using Anti-Oxidant Machinery and Other Innovative Strategies
14.13 Conclusions
References
15 Chromium Profile in Soil, Fodders and Plasma of Crossbreed Cattle
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.2.1 Samples Collection
15.2.2 Processing of Samples
15.2.3 Statistical Analysis
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.3.1 Soil
15.3.2 Water
15.3.3 Forages/Roughages
15.3.4 Feed Ingredients
15.3.5 Mineral Mixtures
15.3.6 Animals
15.4 Conclusion
References
16 Molecular Mechanisms of Chromium Tolerance in Plants: A Key Role of Antioxidant Defense
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Reactive Oxygen Species and Reactive Nitrogen Species as Components of Plant Immunity and Energy Metabolism
16.3 Antioxidant System of Plants: Overview
16.4 Low-Molecular Mass Antioxidants
16.4.1 Tocopherols
16.4.2 Ascorbic Acid
16.4.3 Glutathione
16.4.4 Carotenoids
16.4.5 Phenolic Compounds
16.5 Protein Non-enzymatic Antioxidants
16.5.1 Metal-Binding Proteins
16.5.2 Heat Shock Proteins
16.6 Enzymatic Antioxidant Defense
16.6.1 Thioredoxins and Glutaredoxins
16.6.2 Antioxidant Enzymes
16.7 Toxicity of Heavy Metals in Plants: Overview
16.8 Oxidative Stress as a Mechanism of Cr Toxicity
16.9 Redox-Sensitive Mechanisms of Plant Adaptive Response to Cr
16.10 Conclusions and Perspectives
References