Chemistry Core Concepts 2E

✍ Scribed by A. Blackman

• Year: 2018
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 1102
• Edition: 2
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Chemistry Core Concepts
Brief contents
Contents
About The Authors
1 The nature of matter
Chemical enquiry
1.1 Why study chemistry?
Your degree
Your career
Your everyday life
1.2 Introduction to matter
Classifying matter
Interconverting matter
1.3 Atomic theory
Law of conservation of mass
Law of definite proportions
From observation to theory
1.4 The structure of the atom
Atomic mass
1.5 The periodic table of the elements
The modern periodic table
Naming the elements
SUMMARY
WHY STUDY CHEMISTRY?
INTRODUCTION TO MATTER
ATOMIC THEORY
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2 The language of chemistry
Chemical enquiry
2.1 Representations in chemistry
Chemical formulae
Structural formulae
Three-dimensional structures
Mechanistic arrows in chemical reactions
2.2 Nomenclature
Naming inorganic compounds
Naming organic compounds
SUMMARY
REPRESENTATIONS IN CHEMISTRY
NOMENCLATURE
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3 Measurement and chemical calculations
Chemical enquiry
3.1 Fundamental skills
Arithmetic operations
Algebraic equations
Graphical representations of data
Expression of large and small numbers
Exponents and logarithms
3.2 Units
SI units
Non-SI units
Dimensional analysis
3.3 Measurement
Precision and accuracy
Significant figures
Uncertainties
SUMMARY
FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS
UNITS
MEASUREMENT
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry
Chemical enquiry
4.1 Chemical and physical change
4.2 Chemical equations
Specifying states of matter
4.3 Balancing chemical equations
4.4 The mole
4.5 Empirical formulae
Mole ratios from chemical formulae
Determination of chemical formulae
Determination of empirical formulae
4.6 Stoichiometry, limiting reagents and percentage yield
Mole ratios in chemical reactions
Limiting reagents
Percentage yield
4.7 Solution stoichiometry
The concentration of solutions
Applications of solution stoichiometry
Stoichiometry of solutions containing ions
SUMMARY
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGE
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
THE MOLE
EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
STOICHIOMETRY, LIMITING REAGENTS AND PERCENTAGE YIELD
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5 Atomic energy levels
Chemical enquiry
5.1 Characteristics of light
Waves
Wave-like properties of light
Particle properties of light
Absorption and emission spectra
Atomic spectra
Quantisation of energy
Energy level diagrams
5.2 Properties of electrons
5.3 Quantisation and quantum numbers
Principal quantum number (n)
Azimuthal quantum number (l)
Magnetic quantum number (ml)
Spin quantum number (ms)
The Pauli exclusion principle
5.4 Atomic orbital electron distributions and energies
Orbital electron distributions
Orbital energies
5.5 Structure of the periodic table
The Aufbau principle and order of orbital filling
Valence electrons
5.6 Electron configurations
Electron–electron repulsion
Orbitals with nearly equal energies
Configurations of ions
Magnetic properties of atoms
Excited states
5.7 Periodicity of atomic properties
Atomic radii
Ionisation energy
SUMMARY
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRONS
QUANTISATION AND QUANTUM NUMBERS
ATOMIC ORBITAL ELECTRON DISTRIBUTIONS AND ENERGIES
STRUCTURE OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
PERIODICITY OF ATOMIC PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6 Chemical bonding and molecular structure
Chemical enquiry
6.1 Fundamentals of bonding
Bond length and bond energy
Unequal electron sharing
6.2 Ionic bonding
6.3 Lewis structures
The conventions
Building Lewis structures
Resonance structures
6.4 Valence-shell-electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
Two sets of electron pairs: linear geometry
Three sets of electron pairs: trigonal planar geometry
Four sets of electron pairs: tetrahedral geometry
Five sets of electron pairs: trigonal bipyramidal geometry
Six sets of electron pairs: octahedral geometry
6.5 Properties of covalent bonds
Dipole moments
Bond length
Bond energy
Summary of molecular shapes
6.6 Valence bond theory
Orbital overlap
Conventions of the orbital overlap model
Hybridisation of atomic orbitals
Multiple bonds
SUMMARY
FUNDAMENTALS OF BONDING
IONIC BONDING
LEWIS STRUCTURES
VALENCE-SHELL-ELECTRON-PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS
VALENCE BOND THEORY
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7 States of matter
Chemical enquiry
7.1 The states of matter
7.2 Intermolecular forces
Dispersion forces
Dipolar forces
Hydrogen bonds
Binary hydrogen compounds
7.3 Gases
Pressure (p)
The gas laws
The ideal gas equation
Determination of molar mass
Determination of gas density
7.4 Gas mixtures
Daltons law of partial pressures
Describing gas mixtures
7.5 Gas stoichiometry
Summary of mole conversions
7.6 Liquids
Properties of liquids
Vapour pressure
7.7 Solids
Magnitudes of forces
Molecular solids
Network solids
Metallic solids
Ionic solids
Amorphous solids
7.8 Phase changes
Supercritical fluids
Phase diagrams
SUMMARY
THE STATES OF MATTER
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
GASES
GAS MIXTURES
GAS STOICHIOMETRY
LIQUIDS
SOLIDS
PHASE CHANGES
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
8 Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical enquiry
8.1 Introduction to chemical thermodynamics
Heat and temperature
System, surroundings and universe
Units
𝚫X: the change in X
8.2 The first law of thermodynamics
Heat capacity
The determination of heat
8.3 Enthalpy
Standard enthalpy change
Hesss law
Standard enthalpy of formation
Standard enthalpy of combustion
Bond enthalpies
8.4 Entropy
Entropy and probability
Entropy and entropy change
Factors that affect entropy
8.5 Gibbs energy and reaction spontaneity
The sign of DG
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
ENTHALPY
ENTROPY
GIBBS ENERGY AND REACTION SPONTANEITY
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
9 Chemical equilibria
Chemical enquiry
9.1 Chemical equilibrium
9.2 The equilibrium constant, K, and the reaction quotient, Q
Reactions at equilibrium
Reactions not at equilibrium
Equilibria involving gases
The relationship between Kp and Kc
Manipulating equilibrium constant expressions
The magnitude of the equilibrium constant
Equilibrium constant expressions for heterogeneous systems
9.3 Equilibrium and Gibbs energy
The relationship between 𝚫rGө and K
9.4 How systems at equilibrium respond to change
Le Châteliers principle
Adding or removing a product or reactant
Changing the pressure in gaseous reactions
Changing the temperature of a reaction mixture
Addition of a catalyst
9.5 Equilibrium calculations
Calculating Kc from equilibrium concentrations
Calculating equilibrium concentrations from initial concentrations
SUMMARY
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, K, AND THE REACTION QUOTIENT, Q
EQUILIBRIUM AND GIBBS ENERGY
HOW SYSTEMS AT EQUILIBRIUM RESPOND TO CHANGE
EQUILIBRIUM CALCULATIONS
Chemical enquiry revisited
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
10 Solutions and solubility
Chemical enquiry
10.1 Introduction to solutions and solubility
10.2 Gaseous solutions
10.3 Liquid solutions
Gas–liquid solutions
Liquid–liquid solutions
Liquid–solid solutions
10.4 Quantification of solubility: the solubility product
The relationship between Ksp and solubility
The common ion effect
10.5 Colligative properties of solutions
Expressing the concentration of a solution
Quantifying colligative properties
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION TO SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY
GASEOUS SOLUTIONS
LIQUID SOLUTIONS
QUANTIFICATION OF SOLUBILITY: THE SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
11 Acids and bases
Chemical enquiry
11.1 The Brønsted–Lowry definition of acids and bases
Conjugate acid–base pairs
11.2 Acid–base reactions in water
The autoprotolysis of water
The concept of pH
The strength of acids and bases
11.3 Strong acids and bases
pH calculations in solutions of strong acids and bases
11.4 Weak acids and bases
pH calculations in solutions of weak acids
11.5 The molecular basis of acid strength
Binary acids
Inductive effects
11.6 Buffer solutions
pH calculations in buffer solutions
11.7 Acid–base titrations
Strong acid – strong base and strong base – strong acid titrations
Weak acid – strong base and weak base – strong acid titrations
Acid–base indicators
SUMMARY
THE BRØNSTED–LOWRY DEFINITION OF ACIDS AND BASES
ACID–BASE REACTIONS IN WATER
STRONG ACIDS AND BASES
WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF ACID STRENGTH
BUFFER SOLUTIONS
ACID–BASE TITRATIONS
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
12 Oxidation and reduction
Chemical enquiry
12.1 Oxidation and reduction
Oxidation numbers
12.2 Balancing net ionic equations for redox reactions
Redox reactions in acidic and basic solutions
12.3 Galvanic cells
Setting up a galvanic cell
Processes in galvanic cells
12.4 Reduction potentials
Cell and standard cell potentials
Reduction and standard reduction potentials
Spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions
12.5 Corrosion
12.6 Electrolysis
What is electrolysis?
Comparison of electrolytic and galvanic cells
Electrolysis in aqueous solutions
12.7 Batteries
The lead storage battery
Dry cell batteries
Modern high-performance batteries
Fuel cells
SUMMARY
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
BALANCING NET IONIC EQUATIONS FOR REDOX REACTIONS
GALVANIC CELLS
REDUCTION POTENTIALS
CORROSION
ELECTROLYSIS
BATTERIES
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
13 Reaction kinetics
Chemical enquiry
13.1 Reaction rates
13.2 Factors that affect reaction rates
Chemical nature of the reactants
Physical nature of the reactants
Concentrations of the reactants
Temperature of the system
Presence of catalysts
13.3 Overview of rate laws
First-order rate laws
Second-order rate laws
Zero-order rate laws
13.4 Temperature dependence of chemical reactions
13.5 Reaction mechanisms and catalysis
Catalysts
Enzyme kinetics
SUMMARY
REACTION RATES
FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES
OVERVIEW OF RATE LAWS
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
REACTION MECHANISMS AND CATALYSIS
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
14 Organic chemistry 1
Chemical enquiry
14.1 Introduction to hydrocarbons
14.2 Alkanes
Conformation of alkanes
Cycloalkanes
Conformations of cycloalkanes
Physical properties of alkanes
14.3 Alkenes and alkynes
Shapes of alkenes and alkynes
Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes
Physical properties of alkenes and alkynes
14.4 Reactions of alkanes
14.5 Reactions of alkenes
Electrophilic addition reactions
14.6 Aromatic compounds
The structure of benzene
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS
ALKANES
ALKENES AND ALKYNES
REACTIONS OF ALKANES
REACTIONS OF ALKENES
AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
15 Organic chemistry 2
Chemical enquiry
15.1 Chirality
Stereoisomers
Enantiomerism
Naming stereocentres
Molecules with more than one stereocentre
Molecules with two stereocentres
Chirality in the biological world
15.2 Alcohols
Physical properties
Preparation of alcohols
15.3 Reactions of alcohols
Acidity of alcohols
Basicity of alcohols
Reaction with active metals
Conversion to haloalkanes
Acid-catalysed dehydration to alkenes
Oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols
Ester formation
15.4 Amines
Physical properties
Preparation of amines
15.5 Reactions of amines
Basicity of amines
Reaction with acids
Amide formation
15.6 Carboxylic acids and derivatives
Carboxylic acids
Acid halides
Acid anhydrides
Esters of carboxylic acids
Amides of carboxylic acids
15.7 Nomenclature of carboxylic acids and derivatives
Carboxylic acids
Acid halides
Acid anhydrides
Esters and lactones
Amides and lactams
SUMMARY
CHIRALITY
ALCOHOLS
REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS
AMINES
REACTIONS OF AMINES
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
NOMENCLATURE OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
16 Biochemistry
Chemical enquiry
16.1 Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
The cyclic structure of monosaccharides
Disaccharides and oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides
16.2 Lipids and triglycerides
Fatty acids
Physical properties of triglycerides
Soaps and detergents
16.3 Amino acids
Chirality
Protein-derived amino acids
Acid–base properties of amino acids
16.4 Peptides, polypeptides and proteins
The structure of polypeptides and proteins
Protein structure
Enzymes
Denaturing proteins
16.5 Nucleosides and nucleotides
16.6 The chemistry of DNA
Primary structure: the covalent backbone
Secondary structure: the double helix
Tertiary structure: supercoiled DNA
DNA replication
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA
Messenger RNA
SUMMARY
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS AND TRIGLYCERIDES
AMINO ACIDS
PEPTIDES, POLYPEPTIDES AND PROTEINS
NUCLEOSIDES AND NUCLEOTIDES
THE CHEMISTRY OF DNA
CHEMICAL ENQUIRY REVISITED
KEY CONCEPTS AND EQUATIONS
KEY TERMS
REVIEW PROBLEMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appendices
Appendix A Thermodynamic data for selected elements, compounds and ions (25°C)
Appendix B Average bond enthalpies (25°C)
Appendix C Solubility products (25°C)
Appendix D Cumulative formation constants of complexes (25°C)
Appendix E Acidity and basicity constants for weak acids and bases (25°C)
Appendix F Standard reduction potentials (25°C)
Appendix G Ionisation energies and electron affinities of the first 36 elements at 25°C
Appendix H Table of molar masses and the periodic table of the elements
INDEX
EULA