Chemistry. Atoms First

✍ Scribed by Julia Burdge, Jason Overby

• Publisher: McGraw-Hill
• Year: 2024
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 1274
• Edition: 5
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Brief Contents
Contents
List of Applications
Preface
Instructor and Student Resources
Acknowledgments
1 CHEMISTRY: THE SCIENCE OF CHANGE
1.1 The Study of Chemistry
Chemistry You May Already Know
The Scientific Method
Thinking Outside the Box: Tips for Success in Chemistry Class
1.2 Scientific Measurement
SI Base Units
Mass
Temperature
Derived Units: Volume and Density
Environmental Aspects: Global Climate Change
1.3 Uncertainty in Measurement
Significant Figures
Calculations with Measured Numbers
Accuracy and Precision
1.4 Using Units and Solving Problems
Conversion Factors
Dimensional Analysis—Tracking Units
1.5 Classification of Matter
States of Matter
Mixtures
Thinking Outside the Box: How Many States of Matter Are There?
1.6 The Properties of Matter
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Extensive and Intensive Properties
2 ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
2.1 Atoms First
2.2 Subatomic Particles and Atomic Structure
Discovery of the Electron
Radioactivity
The Proton and the Nuclear Model of the Atom
The Neutron
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
2.4 Nuclear Stability
Patterns of Nuclear Stability
2.5 Average Atomic Mass
Thinking Outside the Box: Measuring Atomic Mass
2.6 The Periodic Table
Environmental Aspects: Isolated Atoms and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
2.7 The Mole and Molar Mass
The Mole
Molar Mass
Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Atoms
3 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
3.1 Energy and Energy Changes
Forms of Energy
Units of Energy
3.2 The Nature of Light
Properties of Waves
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Double-Slit Experiment
Environmental Aspects: Solar Energy
3.3 Quantum Theory
Quantization of Energy
Photons and the Photoelectric Effect
Thinking Outside the Box: Everyday Occurrences of the Photoelectric Effect
3.4 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
Atomic Line Spectra
The Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
3.5 Wave Properties of Matter
The de Broglie Hypothesis
Diffraction of Electrons
3.6 Quantum Mechanics
The Uncertainty Principle
The SchroÅNdinger Equation
The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom
3.7 Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number (n)
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)
Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ)
Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)
3.8 Atomic Orbitals
s Orbitals
p Orbitals
d Orbitals and Other Higher-Energy Orbitals
Energies of Orbitals
4 PERIODIC TRENDS OF THE ELEMENTS
4.1 Development of the Periodic Table
4.2 Electron Configurations
Energies of Atomic Orbitals in Many-Electron Systems
The Pauli Exclusion Principle
The Aufbau Principle
Hund’s Rule
General Rules for Writing Electron Configurations
Thinking Outside the Box: How do we know that ns orbitals fill before (n – 1)d orbitals?
4.3 Electron Configurations and the Modern Periodic Table
4.4 Effective Nuclear Charge
4.5 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
Atomic Radius
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Metallic Character
4.6 Electron Configuration of Ions
Ions of Main Group Elements
Ions of d-Block Elements
4.7 Ionic Radius
Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius
Isoelectronic Series
Environmental Aspects: Lead in the Water in Flint, Michigan
Thinking Outside the Box: Mistaking Strontium for Calcium
5 IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
5.1 Compounds
5.2 Lewis Dot Symbols
5.3 Ionic Compounds and Bonding
5.4 Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds
5.5 Covalent Bonding and Molecules
Molecules
Molecular Formulas
Empirical Formulas
5.6 Naming Molecular Compounds
Specifying Numbers of Atoms
Compounds Containing Hydrogen
Organic Compounds
Environmental Aspects: CFC Nomenclature
Thinking Outside the Box: Functional Groups
5.7 Covalent Bonding in Ionic Species
Polyatomic Ions
Oxoacids
Hydrates
Familiar Inorganic Compounds
5.8 Molecular and Formula Masses
5.9 Percent Composition of Compounds
5.10 Molar Mass
Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Particles
Determination of Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula from Percent Composition
6 REPRESENTING MOLECULES
6.1 The Octet Rule
Lewis Structures
Multiple Bonds
6.2 Electronegativity and Polarity
Electronegativity
Dipole Moment, Partial Charges, and Percent Ionic Character
6.3 Drawing Lewis Structures
6.4 Lewis Structures and Formal Charge
6.5 Resonance
6.6 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Incomplete Octets
Odd Numbers of Electrons
Thinking Outside the Box: Species with Unpaired Electrons
Environmental Aspects: Tropospheric Ozone
Expanded Octets
7 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, INTERMOLECULAR FORCES, AND BONDING THEORIES
7.1 Molecular Geometry
The VSEPR Model
Electron-Domain Geometry and Molecular Geometry
Deviation from Ideal Bond Angles
Geometry of Molecules with More Than One Central Atom
7.2 Molecular Geometry and Polarity
Environmental Aspects: Polarity and the Greenhouse Effect
7.3 Intermolecular Forces
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Hydrogen Bonding
Dispersion Forces
Ion-Dipole Interactions
7.4 Valence Bond Theory
7.5 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
Hybridization of s and p Orbitals
Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals
Profiles in Chemistry: Linus Pauling
7.6 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Multiple Bonds
7.7 Molecular Orbital Theory
Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals
σ Molecular Orbitals
Thinking Outside the Box: Phases
Bond Order
π Molecular Orbitals
Molecular Orbital Diagrams
Thinking Outside the Box: Molecular Orbitals in Heteronuclear Diatomic Species
7.8 Bonding Theories and Descriptions of Molecules with Delocalized Bonding
8 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
8.1 Chemical Equations
Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations
Balancing Chemical Equations
Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
8.2 Combustion Analysis
Determination of Empirical Formula
Profiles in Chemistry: Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier
8.3 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations
Moles of Reactants and Products
Mass of Reactants and Products
8.4 Limiting Reactants
Determining the Limiting Reactant
Reaction Yield
Atom Economy
Environmental Aspects: Green Chemistry Metrics
8.5 Periodic Trends in Reactivity of the Main Group Elements
General Trends in Reactivity
Hydrogen (1s1)
Reactions of the Active Metals
Reactions of Other Main Group Elements
Comparison of Group 1 and Group 11 Elements
9 CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
9.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
9.2 Precipitation Reactions
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water
Molecular Equations
Ionic Equations
Net Ionic Equations
Environmental Aspects: Softening Hard Water
9.3 Acid-Base Reactions
Strong Acids and Bases
Br.nsted Acids and Bases
Acid-Base Neutralization
9.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
Balancing Simple Redox Equations
Other Types of Redox Reactions
9.5 Concentration of Solutions
Molarity
Dilution
Serial Dilution
Thinking Outside the Box: Visible Spectrophotometry
The pH Scale
Solution Stoichiometry
9.6 Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
Gravimetric Analysis
Acid-Base Titrations
10 ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
10.1 Energy and Energy Changes
10.2 Introduction to Thermodynamics
States and State Functions
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Work and Heat
10.3 Enthalpy
Reactions Carried Out at Constant Volume or at Constant Pressure
Enthalpy and Enthalpy Changes
Thermochemical Equations
10.4 Calorimetry
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
Constant-Volume Calorimetry
Thinking Outside the Box: Heat Capacity of Calorimeters
Environmental Aspects: Energy Density and Specific Energy
10.5 Hess’s Law
10.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation
10.7 Bond Enthalpy and the Stability of Covalent Molecules
10.8 Lattice Energy and the Stability of Ionic Solids
The Born-Haber Cycle
Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
11 GASES
11.1 Properties of Gases
11.2 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Molecular Speed
Diffusion and Effusion
11.3 Gas Pressure
Definition and Units of Pressure
Calculation of Pressure
Measurement of Pressure
11.4 The Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship
Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship
Avogadro’s Law: The Amount-Volume Relationship
The Gas Laws and Kinetic Molecular Theory
The Combined Gas Law: The Pressure-Temperature-Amount-Volume Relationship
11.5 The Ideal Gas Equation
Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation
Environmental Aspects: Lead in Gasoline
11.6 Real Gases
Factors That Cause Deviation from Ideal Behavior
The van der Waals Equation
van der Waals Constants
11.7 Gas Mixtures
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Mole Fractions
Thinking Outside the Box: Decompression Injury
11.8 Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products
Calculating the Required Volume of a Gaseous Reactant
Determining the Amount of Reactant Consumed Using Change in Pressure
Using Partial Pressures to Solve Problems
Profiles in Chemistry: Fritz Haber
12 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
12.1 The Condensed Phases
12.2 Properties of Liquids
Surface Tension
Viscosity
Vapor Pressure of Liquids
Boiling Point
12.3 Properties of Solids
Melting Point
Vapor Pressure of Solids
Amorphous Solids
Crystalline Solids
Thinking Outside the Box: X-Ray Diffraction
12.4 Types of Crystalline Solids
Ionic Crystals
Covalent Crystals
Molecular Crystals
Metallic Crystals
12.5 Phase Changes
Liquid to Vapor
Solid to Liquid
Solid to Vapor
Environmental Aspects: Water Vapor in the Atmosphere
12.6 Phase Diagrams
13 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
13.1 Types of Solutions
13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process
The Importance of Intermolecular Forces
Energy and Entropy in Solution Formation
Profiles in Chemistry: Alice Ball
13.3 Concentration Units
Molality
Percent by Mass
Comparison of Concentration Units
13.4 Factors That Affect Solubility
Temperature
Pressure
13.5 Colligative Properties
Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Boiling-Point Elevation
Freezing-Point Depression
Osmotic Pressure
Electrolyte Solutions
Thinking Outside the Box: Intravenous Fluids
Thinking Outside the Box: Fluoride Poisoning
13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties
13.7 Colloids
Environmental Aspects: EPS Foam Bans
14 CHEMICAL KINETICS
14.1 Reaction Rates
14.2 Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions
14.3 Measuring Reaction Progress and Expressing Reaction Rate
Average Reaction Rate
Instantaneous Rate
Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate
14.4 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Reactant Concentration
The Rate Law
Experimental Determination of the Rate Law
14.5 Dependence of Reactant Concentration on Time
First-Order Reactions
Second-Order Reactions
14.6 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Temperature
The Arrhenius Equation
Thinking Outside the Box: Surface Area
14.7 Reaction Mechanisms
Elementary Reactions
Rate-Determining Step
Mechanisms with a Fast First Step
Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms
14.8 Catalysis
Heterogeneous Catalysis
Homogeneous Catalysis
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
Environmental Aspects: Catalytic Converters
15 ENTROPY AND GIBBS ENERGY
15.1 Spontaneous Processes
15.2 Entropy
A Qualitative Description of Entropy
A Quantitative Definition of Entropy
15.3 Entropy Changes in a System
Calculating ΔSsys
Standard Entropy, S°
Qualitatively Predicting the Sign of ΔS°sys
15.4 Entropy Changes in the Universe
Calculating ΔSsurr
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Thinking Outside the Box: Thermodynamics and Living Systems
Environmental Aspects: Thermodynamic Limits on Energy Conversion
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
15.5 Predicting Spontaneity
Gibbs Energy Change, ΔG
Standard Gibbs Energy Changes, ΔG°
Using ΔG and ΔG° to Solve Problems
15.6 Thermodynamics in Living Systems
16 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
16.1 The Concept of Equilibrium
16.2 The Equilibrium Constant
Calculating Equilibrium Constants
Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant
16.3 Equilibrium Expressions
Heterogeneous Equilibria
Manipulating Equilibrium Expressions
Gaseous Equilibria
16.4 Chemical Equilibrium and Gibbs Energy
Using Q and K to Predict the Direction of Reaction
Relationship Between ΔG and ΔG°
Relationship Between ΔG° and K
16.5 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
16.6 Le Cha^telier’s Principle: Factors That Affect Equilibrium
Addition or Removal of a Substance
Changes in Volume and Pressure
Changes in Temperature
Catalysis
Environmental Aspects: Bioaccumulation of Toxins
Thinking Outside the Box: Biological Equilibria
17 ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS
17.1 Br.nsted Acids and Bases
17.2 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
Hydrohalic Acids
Oxoacids
Carboxylic Acids
Profiles in Chemistry: St. Elmo Brady
Thinking Outside the Box: Substituent Electronegativity and Acid Strength
17.3 The Acid-Base Properties of Water
17.4 The pH and pOH Scales
17.5 Strong Acids and Bases
Strong Acids
Strong Bases
17.6 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants
The Ionization Constant, Ka
Calculating pH from Ka
Percent Ionization
Environmental Aspects: Acid Rain
Using pH to Determine Ka
17.7 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants
The Ionization Constant, Kb
Calculating pH from Kb
Using pH to Determine Kb
17.8 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
The Strength of a Conjugate Acid or Base
The Relationship Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair
17.9 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids
17.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions
Basic Salt Solutions
Acidic Salt Solutions
Neutral Salt Solutions
Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze
17.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides
Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals
Basic and Amphoteric Hydroxides
17.12 Lewis Acids and Bases
18 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA
18.1 The Common Ion Effect
18.2 Buffer Solutions
Calculating the pH of a Buffer
Preparing a Buffer Solution with a Specific pH
Environmental Aspects: Ocean Acidification
18.3 Acid-Base Titrations
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations
Strong Acid–Weak Base Titrations
Acid-Base Indicators
18.4 Solubility Equilibria
Solubility Product Expression and Ksp
Calculations Involving Ksp and Solubility
Predicting Precipitation Reactions
18.5 Factors Affecting Solubility
The Common Ion Effect
pH
Complex Ion Formation
Thinking Outside the Box: Equilibrium and Tooth Decay
18.6 Separation of Ions Using Differences in Solubility
Fractional Precipitation
Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions in Solution
19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
19.1 Balancing Redox Reactions
19.2 Galvanic Cells
19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
19.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Standard State Conditions
19.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Conditions Other Than Standard State
The Nernst Equation
Concentration Cells
19.6 Batteries
Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries
Lead Storage Batteries
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Fuel Cells
Thinking Outside the Box: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
19.7 Electrolysis
Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride
Electrolysis of Water
Environmental Aspects: Artificial Leaves as a Renewable Energy Source
Quantitative Applications of Electrolysis
19.8 Corrosion
20 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
20.1 Nuclei and Nuclear Reactions
20.2 Nuclear Stability
Types of Nuclear Decay
Nuclear Binding Energy
20.3 Natural Radioactivity
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
Dating Based on Radioactive Decay
20.4 Nuclear Transmutation
20.5 Nuclear Fission
Environmental Aspects: Nuclear Power, Waste, and Recycling
20.6 Nuclear Fusion
20.7 Uses of Isotopes
Chemical Analysis
Thinking Outside the Box: Nuclear Medicine
Isotopes in Medicine
20.8 Biological Effects of Radiation
21 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
21.1 Earth’s Atmosphere
21.2 Phenomena in the Outer Layers of the Atmosphere
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis
The Mystery Glow of Space Shuttles
21.3 Depletion of Ozone in the Stratosphere
Polar Ozone Holes
21.4 Volcanoes
21.5 The Greenhouse Effect
21.6 Acid Rain
21.7 Photochemical Smog
21.8 Indoor Pollution
The Risk from Radon
Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide
Formaldehyde
22 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
22.1 Coordination Compounds
Properties of Transition Metals
Ligands
Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
Thinking Outside the Box: Chelation Therapy
22.2 Structure of Coordination Compounds
22.3 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes
Color
Magnetic Properties
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes
22.4 Reactions of Coordination Compounds
22.5 Applications of Coordination Compounds
23 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
23.1 Why Carbon Is Different
23.2 Classes of Organic Compounds
Basic Nomenclature
Molecules with Multiple Substituents
Molecules with Specific Functional Groups
23.3 Representing Organic Molecules
Condensed Structural Formulas
KekuleÅL Structures
Bond-Line Structures
Resonance
23.4 Isomerism
Constitutional Isomerism
Stereoisomerism
Thinking Outside the Box: Thalidomide Analogues
23.5 Organic Reactions
Addition Reactions
Substitution Reactions
Other Types of Organic Reactions
23.6 Organic Polymers
Addition Polymers
Condensation Polymers
Biological Polymers
24 MODERN MATERIALS
24.1 Polymers
Addition Polymers
Condensation Polymers
Thinking Outside the Box: Electrically Conducting Polymers
24.2 Ceramics and Composite Materials
Ceramics
Composite Materials
24.3 Liquid Crystals
24.4 Biomedical Materials
Dental Implants
Soft Tissue Materials
Artificial Joints
24.5 Nanotechnology
Graphite, Buckyballs, and Nanotubes
24.6 Semiconductors
24.7 Superconductors
Appendix 1 Mathematical Operations
Appendix 2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C*
Appendix 3 Solubility Product Constants at 25°C
Appendix 4 Dissociation Constants for Weak Acids and Bases at 25°C
Glossary
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems
Index