Chemical Engineering Design

✍ Scribed by Ray Sinnott, Gavin Towler

• Publisher: Butterworth-Heinemann
• Year: 2019
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 59
• Edition: 6
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Front Matter
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgements
How to Use This Book
As a Design Course Textbook
As an Introductory Chemical Engineering Textbook
Supplementary Material
Introduction to Design
Introduction
Nature of design
The design objective (the need)
Setting the design basis
Generation of possible design concepts
Fitness testing
Economic evaluation, optimization and selection
Detailed design and equipment selection
Procurement, construction and operation
The anatomy of a chemical manufacturing process
Stage 1. Raw material storage
Stage 2. Feed preparation
Stage 3. Reaction
Stage 4. Product separation
Stage 5. Purification
Stage 6. Product storage
Ancillary processes
Continuous and batch processes
Choice of continuous versus batch production
The organization of a chemical engineering project
Project documentation
Calculation sheets
Drawings
Specification sheets
Process manuals
Operating manuals
Review, Checking and Sign-off
Codes and standards
Design factors (Design margins)
Systems of units
Optimization
The design objective
Constraints and degrees of freedom
Degrees of freedom
Trade-offs
Problem decomposition
Optimization of a single decision variable
Search methods
Unrestricted search
Regular search (three-point interval search)
Golden-section search
Quasi-Newton method
Optimization of two or more decision variables
Convexity
Searching in two dimensions
Problems in multivariable optimization
Multivariable optimization
Linear programming
Non-linear programming
Successive linear programming (SLP)
Successive quadratic programming (SQP)
Reduced gradient method
Mixed integer programming
Mixed-integer programming algorithms
Superstructure optimization
Optimization in industrial practice
Optimization of process operations
Optimization of batch and semi-continuous processes
Optimization in process design
1.10 References
Nomenclature
Problems
Fundamentals of Material Balances
Introduction
The equivalence of mass and energy
Conservation of mass
Units used to express compositions
Stoichiometry
Choice of system boundary
Choice of basis for calculations
Number of independent components
Physical systems, no reaction
Chemical systems, reaction
Constraints on flows and compositions
General algebraic method
Tie components
Excess reagent
Conversion, selectivity and yield
Conversion
Selectivity
Yield
Sources of conversion, selectivity and yield data
Recycle processes
Purge
By-pass
Unsteady-state calculations
General procedure for material-balance problems
Procedure
2.19 References
Nomenclature
Problems
Fundamentals of Energy Balances and Energy Utilization
Introduction
Conservation of energy
Forms of energy (per unit mass of material)
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Internal energy
Work
Heat
Electrical energy
The energy balance
Calculation of specific enthalpy
Mean heat capacities
The effect of pressure on heat capacity
Enthalpy of mixtures
Integral heats of solution
Enthalpy-concentration diagrams
Heats of reaction
Effect of pressure on heats of reaction
Standard heats of formation
Heats of combustion
Compression and expansion of gases
Mollier diagrams
Polytropic compression and expansion
Multistage compressors
Electrical drives
Energy balance calculations
Unsteady state energy balances
Energy recovery
Heat exchange
Waste-heat boilers
High-temperature reactors
Low-grade fuels
Reactor off-gases
Liquid and solid wastes
High-pressure process streams
Gas streams
Liquid streams
Heat pumps
Heat exchanger networks
Pinch technology
Simple two-stream problem
Four stream problem
Thermodynamic significance of the pinch
The problem table method
Summary
Heat exchanger network design
Grid representation
Network design for maximum energy recovery
Network design above the pinch
Network design below the pinch
Stream splitting
Summary
Minimum number of exchangers
Threshold problems
Process integration: integration of other process operations
Computer tools for heat exchanger network design
3.18 References
Nomenclature
Problems
Flow-sheeting
Introduction
Flow-sheet presentation
Block diagrams
Pictorial representation
Presentation of stream flow rates
Information to be included
Essential information
Optional information
Layout
Precision of data
Basis of the calculation
Batch processes
Utilities
Equipment identification
Computer aided drafting
Process simulation programs
Specification of components and physical property models
Pure components
Pseudocomponents
Solids and salts
User components
Simulation of unit operations
Reactors
Conversion reactor (stoichiometric reactor)
Equilibrium reactor
Gibbs reactor
Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
Plug flow reactor (PFR)
Yield-shift reactor
Modelling real reactors
Distillation
Shortcut models
Rigorous models
Complex columns for fractionation
Column sizing
Other separations
Component splitter models
Heat exchange
Hydraulics
Solids handling
User models
Spreadsheet models
User subroutines
Flow-sheets with recycle
Tearing the flow-sheet
Convergence methods
Successive substitution (direct substitution)
Bounded Wegstein
Newton and quasi-Newton methods
Manual calculations
Convergence problems
Flow-sheet optimization
Use of controllers
Optimization using process simulation software
Dynamic simulation
4.10 References
British Standards
American and International Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
Piping and Instrumentation
Introduction
The P and I Diagram
Symbols and layout
Basic symbols
Control valves
Actuators
Instrument Lines
Failure mode
General instrument and controller symbols
Distributed control - shared display symbols
Other common symbols
Type of instrument
Valve selection
Pumps and compressors
Pump selection
Pressure drop in pipelines
Non-Newtonian fluids
Gases
Two-phase mixtures
Miscellaneous pressure losses
Power requirements for pumping liquids
Characteristic curves for centrifugal pumps
System curve (operating line)
Net positive suction head (NPSH)
Pump and other shaft seals
Packed glands
Mechanical seals
The basic mechanical seal
Double seals
Seal-less pumps (canned pumps)
Gas Compressors
Mechanical design of piping systems
Piping System Design Codes
Wall thickness: pipe schedule
Pipe supports
Pipe fittings
Pipe stressing
Layout and design
Pipe size selection
Economic pipe diameter
Control and instrumentation
Instruments
Instrumentation and control objectives
Automatic control schemes
Guide rules
Typical control systems
Level control
Pressure control
Flow control
Heat exchangers
Condenser control
Reboiler and vaporizer control
Cascade control
Ratio control
Distillation column control
Reactor control
Alarms, safety trips and interlocks
Interlocks
Computers in process control
5.11 References
British and European Standards
American and International Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
Costing and Project Evaluation
Introduction
Costs, revenues and profits
Fixed Capital Investment
ISBL plant costs
Offsite costs
Engineering costs
Contingency charges
Working capital
Variable costs of production
Fixed costs of production
Revenues, margins and profits
Revenues
Margins
Profits
Cash flows at the end of the project
Estimating capital costs
Accuracy and purpose of capital cost estimates
Rapid cost estimates
Historic cost data
Step count method
Manufactured products
The factorial method of cost estimation
Lang factors
Detailed factorial estimates
Summary of the factorial method
Estimating Purchased Equipment Costs
Cost Escalation
Location factors
Offsite costs
Computer tools for cost estimation
Mapping simulation data
Design factors in ACCE
Pressure vessels
Non-standard components in ACCE
Validity of cost estimates
Estimating production costs and revenues
Sources of price data
Internal company forecasts
Trade journals
Consultants
On-line brokers and suppliers
Reference books
Forecasting prices
Transfer pricing
Utility costs
Fired heat
Steam
Cooling
Electricity
Water
Air and nitrogen
Consumables costs
Waste disposal costs
Labour costs
By-product revenues
Summarizing production costs and revenues
Taxes and depreciation
Taxes
Investment incentives
Depreciation charges
Straight line depreciation
Declining balance depreciation
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)
Project financing
Basics of corporate accounting and finance
Balance sheet
Income statement
Cash flow statement
Summary
Debt financing and repayment
Equity financing
Cost of capital
Economic evaluation of projects
Cash flow and cash flow diagrams
Simple methods for economic analysis
Pay-back time
Return on investment
Time value of money
Net present value
Discounted cash-flow rate of return (DCFROR)
Annualized cost methods
Summary
Sensitivity analysis
Simple sensitivity analysis
Parameters to study
Statistical methods for risk analysis
Contingency costs
Project portfolio selection
Types of projects
Limits on the project portfolio
Decision criteria
6.10 References
American Laws and Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
Materials of Construction
Introduction
Material properties
Mechanical properties
Tensile strength
Stiffness
Toughness
Hardness
Fatigue
Creep
Effect of temperature on the mechanical properties
Corrosion resistance
Uniform corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Pitting
Intergranular corrosion
Effect of stress
Erosion-corrosion
High-temperature oxidation and sulphidation
Hydrogen embrittlement
Selection for corrosion resistance
Corrosion charts
Material costs
Contamination
Surface finish
Commonly used materials of construction
Iron and steel
Stainless steel
Types
Mechanical properties
General corrosion resistance
High alloy content stainless steels
Nickel
Monel
Inconel and Incoloy
The Hastelloys
Copper and copper alloys
Aluminium and its alloys
Lead
Titanium
Tantalum
Zirconium
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Plastics as materials of construction for chemical plant
Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyolefins
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
Glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GRP)
Rubber
Ceramic materials (silicate materials)
Glass
Stoneware
Acid-resistant bricks and tiles
Refractory materials (refractories)
Carbon
Protective coatings
Design for corrosion resistance
7.14 References
British and European Standards
American and International Standards
Bibliography
Nomenclature
Problems
Design Information and Data
Introduction
Sources of information on manufacturing processes
Patents
The internet
General sources of physical properties
Accuracy required of engineering data
Prediction of physical properties
Density
Liquids
Gas and vapour density (specific volume)
Viscosity
Liquids
Variation with temperature
Effect of pressure
Mixtures
Gases
Thermal conductivity
Solids
Liquids
Gases
Mixtures
Specific heat capacity
Solids and liquids
Gases
Enthalpy of vaporization (latent heat)
Mixtures
Vapour pressure
Diffusion coefficients (diffusivities)
Gases
Liquids
Surface tension
Mixtures
Critical constants
Enthalpy of reaction and enthalpy of formation
Phase equilibrium data
Experimental data
Phase equilibrium
Relative volatility
Equations of state
Redlich-Kwong equation (R-K)
Redlich-Kwong-Soave equation (R-K-S)
Benedict-Webb-Rubin (B-W-R) equation
Lee-Kesler-Plocker (L-K-P) equation
Chao-Seader equation (C-S)
Grayson-Streed equation (G-S)
Peng-Robinson equation (P-R)
Brown K10 equation (B-K10)
Correlations for liquid phase activity coefficients
Wilson equation
Non-random two liquid equation (NRTL) equation
Universal quasi-chemical (UNIQUAC) equation
Prediction of vapour-liquid equilibrium
Estimation of activity coefficients from azeotropic data
Activity coefficients at infinite dilution
Calculation of activity coefficients from mutual solubility data
Group contribution methods
K-values for hydrocarbons
Sour-water systems
Vapour-liquid equilibrium at high pressures
Liquid-liquid equilibrium
Choice of phase equilibrium model for design calculations
Classes of mixtures
Flow chart for selection of phase equilibrium method
Gas solubility
Use of equations of state to estimate specific enthalpy and density
Specific enthalpy
Density
8.17 References
Bibliography: General Sources of Physical Properties
Nomenclature
Problems
Safety and Loss Prevention
Introduction
Safety legislation
Layers of plant safety
Intrinsic and extrinsic safety
Materials hazards
Toxicity
Flammability
Flash-point
Autoignition temperature
Flammability limits
Materials incompatibility
Ionizing radiation
Materials Safety Data Sheets
Design for materials hazards
Process hazards
Pressure
Temperature deviations
Noise
Loss of containment
Fires and ignition sources
Electrical equipment
Static electricity
Process flames
Miscellaneous sources
Flame traps
Fire protection
Explosions
Confined vapour cloud explosion (CVCE)
Unconfined vapour cloud explosions (UCVCE)
Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions (BLEVE)
Dust explosions
Explosivity Properties
Design implications
Human error
Analysis of product and process safety
Safety Checklists
Design safety check list
Failure-mode effect analysis
FMEA procedure
FMEA rating scales
Interpretation of FMEA scores
Tools for FMEA
Safety indices
Calculation of the Dow F & EI
Material factor
General process hazards
Special process hazards
Potential loss
Basic preventative and protective measures
Mond fire, explosion, and toxicity index
Procedure
Preventative measures
Implementation
Summary
General process hazards:
Special process hazards:
Hazard and Operability Studies
Basic principles
Explanation of guide words
Procedure
Operability study
Quantitative Hazard Analysis
Fault trees
Equipment reliability
Tolerable risk and safety priorities
Computer software for quantitative risk analysis
Pressure relief
Pressure relief scenarios
Pressure relief loads
Design of pressure relief valves
Spring-loaded relief valves
Pilot-operated relief valves
Sizing relief valves
Design of non-reclosing pressure relief devices
Design of pressure relief discharge systems
Protection from under-pressure (vacuum)
9.10 References
Bibliography
British and European Standards
American and International Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
Equipment Selection, Specification and Design
Introduction
Gas-Gas separations
Adsorption
Irreversible adsorption
Reversible adsorption
Pressure swing adsorption
Temperature swing adsorption
Adsorbent selection
Adsorption equipment design
Membrane separation
Membrane selection and construction
Membrane process design
Cryogenic distillation
Absorption and stripping
Condensation
Solid-Solid separations
Screening (sieving)
Liquid-solid cyclones
Hydroseparators and sizers (classifiers)
Hydraulic jigs
Tables
Classifying centrifuges
Dense-medium separators (sink and float processes)
Flotation separators (froth-flotation)
Magnetic separators
Electrostatic separators
Liquid-Solid (Solid-Liquid) Separators
Thickeners and clarifiers
Filtration
Nutsche (gravity and vacuum operation)
Plate and frame press (pressure operation) (Figure 10.22)
Leaf filters (pressure and vacuum operation)
Rotary drum filters (usually vacuum operation) (Figure 10.23)
Disc filters (pressure and vacuum operation)
Belt filters (vacuum operation) (Figure 10.24)
Horizontal pan filters (vacuum operation) (Figure 10.25)
Centrifugal filters
Cross-flow filters
Centrifuges
Sedimentation centrifuges
1. Tubular bowl (Figure 10.29)
2. Disc bowl (Figure 10.30)
3. Scroll discharge
4. Solid bowl batch centrifuge
Sigma theory for sedimentation centrifuges
Filtration centrifuges (centrifugal filters)
Hydrocyclones (liquid-cyclones)
Pressing (expression)
Solids drying
Tray dryers (Figure 10.38)
Conveyor dryers (continuous circulation band dryers) (Figure 10.39)
Rotary dryer (Figure 10.40)
Fluidized bed dryers (Figure 10.41)
Pneumatic dryers (Figure 10.42)
Spray dryers (Figure 10.43)
Rotary drum dryers (Figure 10.44)
Separation of dissolved solids
Evaporators
Direct-heated evaporators
Long-tube evaporators (Figure 10.45)
Forced-circulation evaporators (Figure 10.46)
Agitated thin-film evaporators (Figure 10.47)
Short-tube evaporators
Evaporator selection
Auxiliary equipment
Crystallization
Tank crystallizers
Scraped-surface crystallizers
Circulating magma crystallizers (Figure 10.49)
Circulating liquor crystallizers (Figure 10.50)
Crystallizer design
Precipitation
Membrane separations
Reverse osmosis
Ion exchange
Adsorption
Liquid-Liquid separation
Decanters (settlers)
Decanter design
Plate separators
Coalescers
Centrifugal separators
Sedimentation centrifuges
Hydrocyclones
Separation of dissolved liquids
Solvent extraction and leaching
Solvent extraction (liquid - liquid extraction)
Leaching
Chromatography
Batch chromatography
Gel permeation chromatography
Affinity chromatography
Continuous chromatography
Gas-Solids separations (Gas cleaning)
Gravity settlers (settling chambers)
Impingement separators
Centrifugal separators (cyclones)
Cyclone design
Pressure drop
General design procedure
Filters
Air filters
Wet scrubbers (washing)
Electrostatic precipitators
Gas - Liquid separators
Settling velocity
Vertical separators
Horizontal separators
Size reduction and size enlargement
Crushing and grinding (comminution) equipment
Size enlargement (agglomeration) equipment
Mixing equipment
Gas mixing
Liquid mixing
Inline mixing
Stirred tanks
Agitator power consumption
Side-entering agitators
Gas-liquid mixing
Solids and pastes
Transport and storage of materials
Gases
Vacuum production
Storage
Liquids
Pump shaft power
Storage
Solids
Storage
10.13 References
British and European Standards
American and International Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
Separation Columns (Distillation, Absorption and Extraction)
Introduction
Distillation column design
Continuous distillation: Process description
Reflux considerations
Total reflux
Minimum reflux
Optimum reflux ratio
Feed-point location
Selection of column pressure
Continuous Distillation: Basic Principles
Stage equations
material balance
energy balance
Dew point and bubble point
Equilibrium flash calculations
Adiabatic flash
Design variables in distillation
Design methods for binary systems
Basic equations
Material balance
Energy balance
Lewis-Sorel method (equimolar overflow)
McCabe-Thiele method
Procedure
Multicomponent distillation: General considerations
Key components
Product specifications
Number and sequencing of columns
Tall columns
Complex columns
Distillation column sequencing for azeotropic mixtures
Multicomponent distillation: short-cut methods for stage and reflux requirements
Minimum number of stages (Fenske equation)
Minimum reflux ratio
Feed-point location
Multicomponent systems: Rigorous solution procedures (computer methods)
Rating and design methods
Linear algebra (simultaneous) methods
Inside-out algorithms
Relaxation methods
Other distillation processes
Batch distillation
Vacuum distillation
Steam distillation
Reactive distillation
Petroleum distillation
Plate efficiency
Prediction of plate efficiency
Multicomponent systems
OConnells correlation
Absorbers
Van Winkles correlation
AIChE method
AIChE method
Estimation of physical properties
Plate design parameters
Multicomponent systems
Entrainment
Approximate column sizing
Plate spacing
Column diameter
Plate contactors
Liquid flow pattern
Selection of plate type
Plate construction
Sectional construction
Stacked plates (cartridge plates)
Downcomers
Side-stream and feed points
Structural design
Plate hydraulic design
Operating range
Plate-design procedure
Procedure
Plate areas
Diameter
Liquid-flow arrangement
Entrainment
Weep point
Weir liquid crest
Weir dimensions
Weir height
Inlet weirs
Weir length
Perforated area
Hole size
Hole pitch
Hydraulic gradient
Liquid throw
Plate pressure drop
Dry plate drop
Residual head
Total drop
Downcomer design [back-up]
Froth height
Downcomer residence time
Packed columns
Choice of plates or packing
Packed-column design procedures
Types of packing
Random packing
Packing size
Structured packing
Packed-bed height
Distillation
Absorption
Stripping
Prediction of the height of a transfer unit (HTU)
Cornells method
Ondas method
Column diameter (capacity)
Column internals
Packing support
Liquid distributors
Liquid redistributors
Hold-down plates
Installing packing
Liquid hold-up
Wetting rates
Column auxiliaries
Solvent extraction (Liquid-Liquid extraction)
Solvent selection
Extraction equipment
Extractor design
Number of stages
Equilibrium data
Number of stages
Procedure
Construction
Immiscible solvents
Extraction columns
Flooding
Supercritical fluid extraction
11.17 References
Nomenclature
Problems
Heat-transfer Equipment
Introduction
Basic Design Procedure and Theory
Heat exchanger analysis: the effectiveness-NTU method
Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient
Fouling Factors (Dirt Factors)
Shell and Tube Exchangers: Construction Details
Exchanger types
Nomenclature
Heat-exchanger standards and codes
Tubes
Dimensions
Tube arrangements
Tube-side passes
Shells
Minimum shell thickness (mm)
Tube-sheet layout (tube count)
Shell types (passes)
Shell and tube designation
Baffles
Support plates and tie rods
Tube sheets (plates)
Shell and header nozzles (branches)
Flow-induced tube vibrations
Mean Temperature Difference (Temperature Driving Force)
Shell and Tube Exchangers: General Design Considerations
Fluid allocation: shell or tubes
Shell and tube fluid velocities
Liquids
Vapours
Stream temperatures
Pressure drop
Liquids
Gas and vapours
Fluid physical properties
Tube-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop (Single Phase)
Heat transfer
Turbulent flow
Hydraulic mean diameter
Laminar flow
Transition region
Heat-transfer factor, jh
Viscosity correction factor
Coefficients for water
Tube-side pressure drop
Shell-Side Heat-Transfer and Pressure Drop (Single Phase)
Flow pattern
Design methods
Kerns method
Procedure
Shell nozzle-pressure drop
Commercial software for heat exchanger design
Condensers
Heat-transfer fundamentals
Physical properties
Condensation outside horizontal tubes
Condensation inside and outside vertical tubes
Flooding in vertical tubes
Condensation inside horizontal tubes
Condensation of steam
Mean temperature difference
Desuperheating and sub-cooling
Desuperheating
Sub-cooling of condensate
Condensation of mixtures
Temperature profile
Estimation of heat-transfer coefficients
Pressure drop in condensers
Reboilers and Vaporizers
Choice of type
Boiling heat-transfer fundamentals
Estimation of boiling heat-transfer coefficients
Pool boiling
Critical heat flux
Film boiling
Convective boiling
Chens method
Design of forced-circulation reboilers
Design of thermosyphon reboilers
Limitations on the use of Frank and Pricketts method
Approximate design method for mixtures
Procedure
Maximum heat flux
General design considerations
Design of kettle reboilers
General design considerations
Mean temperature differences
Mixtures
Plate heat exchangers
Gasketed plate heat exchangers
Selection
Advantages
Disadvantages
Plate heat exchanger design
Procedure
Flow arrangements
Estimation of the temperature correction factor
Heat transfer coefficient
Pressure drop
Welded plate
Plate-fin
Spiral heat exchangers
Direct-Contact heat exchangers
Finned tubes
Double-Pipe heat exchangers
Air-Cooled exchangers
Air coolers: construction details
Heat transfer in air coolers
Air cooler design
Air cooler operation and control
Fired heaters (Furnaces and boilers)
Basic construction
Design
Heat transfer
Radiant section
Convection section
Pressure drop
Process-side heat-transfer and pressure drop
Stack design
Thermal efficiency
Fired heater emissions
Heat transfer to vessels
Jacketed vessels
Conventional jackets
Half-pipe jackets
Dimpled jackets
Jacket selection
Jacket heat-transfer and pressure drop
Internal coils
Coil heat-transfer and pressure drop
Agitated vessels
12.19 References
British Standards
American and International Standards
Engineering Sciences Data Unit Reports
Bibliography
12.20 Nomenclature
Problems
Mechanical Design of Process Equipment
Introduction
Classification of pressure vessels
Pressure vessel codes and standards
Fundamental principles and equations
Principal stresses
Theories of failure
Elastic stability
Membrane stresses in shells of revolution
Cylinder (Figure 13.6a)
Sphere (Figure 13.6b)
Cone (Figure 13.6c)
Ellipsoid (Figure 13.6d)
Torus (Figure 13.6e)
Torispherical heads
Flat plates
1. Clamped edges (Figure 13.8a)
2. Simply supported plate (Figure 13.8b)
General equation for flat plates
Dilation of vessels
Secondary stresses
General design considerations: pressure vessels
Design pressure
Design temperature
Materials
Maximum allowable stress (nominal design strength)
Welded joint efficiency and construction categories
Corrosion allowance
Design loads
Major loads
Subsidiary loads
Minimum practical wall thickness
The design of thin-walled vessels under internal pressure
Cylinders and spherical shells
Heads and closures
Choice of closure
Design of flat ends
Design of domed ends
Hemispherical heads
Ellipsoidal heads
Torispherical heads
Flanges (skirts) on domed heads
Conical sections and end closures
Compensation for openings and branches
Design of vessels subject to external pressure
Cylindrical shells
Out of roundness
Vessel heads
Design of vessels subject to combined loading
Primary stresses
Principal stresses
Allowable stress intensity
Compressive stresses and elastic stability
Stiffening
Loading
Weight loads
Wind loads (tall vessels)
Dynamic wind pressure
Deflection of tall columns
Wind-induced vibrations
Earthquake loading
Eccentric loads (tall vessels)
Torque
Vessel supports
Saddle supports
Design of saddles
Skirt supports
Skirt thickness
Base ring and anchor bolt design
Bracket supports
Bolted flanged joints
Types of flange, and selection
Gaskets
Flange faces
Flange design
Standard flanges
Heat-exchanger tube-plates
Welded joint design
Fatigue assessment of vessels
Pressure tests
High-pressure vessels
Compound vessels
Shrink-fitted cylinders
Multilayer vessels
Wound vessels
Autofrettage
Liquid storage tanks
13.17 References
Bibliography
British and European Standards
American and International Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
General Site Considerations
Introduction
Plant location and site selection
Marketing area
Raw materials
Transport
Availability of labour
Utilities (services)
Environmental impact and effluent disposal
Local community considerations
Land (site considerations)
Climate
Political and strategic considerations
Site layout
Plant layout
Costs
Process requirements
Operation
Maintenance
Safety
Plant expansion
Modular construction
General considerations
Techniques used in site and plant layout
Utilities
Electricity
Steam
Combined heat and power (co-generation)
Cooling water
Water for general use
Demineralized water
Refrigeration
Compressed air
Inert gases
Effluent disposal
Environmental considerations
Environmental legislation
Waste minimization
Waste management
Gaseous wastes
Liquid wastes
Solid wastes
Aqueous wastes
Noise
Visual impact
Environmental auditing
Life Cycle Assessment
14.7 References
British and European Standards
American and International Standards
Design of Reactors and Mixers
Introduction
Reactor design: general procedure
General procedure for reactor design
Step 1: Collect required data
Step 2: Select reaction conditions
Step 3: Determine materials of construction
Step 4: Determine the rate limiting step and critical sizing parameters of the reactor
Step 5: Preliminary sizing, layout and costing of reactor
Step 6: Estimate reactor performance
Step 7: Optimize the design
Step 8: Prepare scale drawings for detailed design
Ideal and real reactors
Plug-flow reactor (PFR)
Well-mixed reactor (WMR)
Real reactors
Sources of reaction engineering data
Enthalpy of reaction
Estimation of heat of reaction using process simulation programs
Equilibrium constant and Gibbs free energy
Reaction mechanisms, rate equations and rate constants
Transport properties
Heat transfer
Diffusivities
Mass transfer coefficients
Choice of reaction conditions
Chemical or biochemical reaction
Catalyst
Temperature
Pressure
Reaction phase
Solvent
Concentrations
Feeds
Byproducts and contaminants
Inerts
Mixing and feed preparation
Mixing in stirred tanks
Gas-liquid mixing
Solid-fluid mixing
Heating and cooling of reacting systems
Heating and cooling reactors: basic principles
Heating and cooling stirred tank reactors
Indirect heat transfer
Direct heat transfer: heating using live steam
Direct heat transfer: evaporative cooling
Heating and cooling catalytic reactors
Slurry reactors
Fixed bed reactors
Fluidized bed reactors
Heat exchange devices as reactors
Homogeneous reaction
Heterogeneous reaction
Multiphase reactors
Vapour-liquid reactors
Liquid-liquid reactors
Vapour-solid reactors
Fixed-bed reactors
Moving-bed reactors
Fluidized-bed reactors
Liquid-solid reactors
Vapour-liquid-solid reactors
Slurry reactors
Trickle-bed reactors
Reactor design for catalytic processes
Design for homogeneous catalysis
Design for heterogeneous catalysis
Liquid-liquid catalysis
Fluid-solid catalysis
Design and selection of solid catalysts
Structure and formulation of catalysts
Physical properties of catalysts
Catalyst testing and selection
Design for catalyst deactivation and regeneration
Catalyst deactivation mechanisms
Reactor design for catalyst deactivation
Reactor design for catalyst regeneration
Design of bioreactors
Enzyme catalysis
Enzyme confinement and immobilization
Cell cultivation
Cell cultivation and growth cycle
Cell immobilization
Tissue culture
Prevention of contamination in biological systems
Chemical contamination
Biological contamination and design for sterile operation
Cleaning
Feed preparation and consumption
Batch fermentation
Fermenter design
Scale-up considerations
Continuous fermentation
Continuous fermenter design and scale-up
Bioreactor instrumentation and control
Safety and quality control of bioreactors
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
Containment
Multifunctional batch reactors
Design of batch reactors
Multifunctional batch reactors
Computer simulation of reactors
Commercial process simulation models
Network models
Hydrodynamic models
Determining actual reactor performance
Measuring experimental reactor output
Measuring commercial reactor behaviour
Tracer studies
Reactor tomography
Safety considerations in reactor design
Inherently safer design principles applied to reactors
Designing for exothermic reactions
Venting and relief of reactive systems
Capital cost of reactors
15.15 References
Bibliography
International Standards
Nomenclature
Problems
Graphical Symbols for Piping Systems and Plant
Based on BS 1553: part 1: 1977
Scope
Symbols (or elements of Symbols) for Use in Conjunction with Other Symbols
Basic and Developed Symbols for Plant and Equipment
Heat Transfer Equipment
Vessels and Tanks
Pumps and Compressors
Solids Handling
Drying
Materials Handling
Prime Movers
Corrosion Chart
Physical Property Data Bank
Conversion Factors for Some Common SI Units
Design Projects I
Commodity chemicals and polymers
Acetic acid
Acrolein and acrylic acid
Cellulose acetate
Chloroform and methylene chloride
Dicyclopentadiene
2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene
Ethylene and propylene by steam cracking
Ethylene by oxidative dehydrogenation
Ethylene from ethanol
Lactic acid by fermentation
Linear alkyl benzenes
2,6-Naphthalenedicarboxylic acid
Nitrobenzene
Polylactic acid
Phenol-cyclohexanone
Propylene
Propylene glycol by fermentation
Propylene oxide by epoxidation
Phosgene
Pyridine
Devices and sensors
Fuel processor
Portable oxygen generator
Electronics and electrochemical processes
Argon recovery from silicon furnace off-gas
Chlor-alkali manufacture
Potassium permanganate
Food Processing and Formulated Products
Aspartame
Cocoa processing
Dicalcium phosphate and phosphoric acid
Erythorbic acid
Folic acid
Insect repellent
Low-fat snacks
Mannitol
Margarine
Moisturizing lotion
Monosodium glutamate
Niacinamide (nicotinamide)
Riboflavin
α-Tocopherol
Fuels
Benzene reduction
Crude-oil distillation
Ethanol by fermentation
Hydrocracking
Isomerization
Gas Processing
Gas to liquids (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis)
Hydrogen production
Krypton and xenon recovery
Methanol to olefins
Natural gas liquefaction
Natural gas liquids recovery
Inorganic Chemicals
Ammonia
Bromine
Fischer-Tropsch catalyst
Nitric acid
Urea
Zeolite synthesis
Pharmaceuticals
Acetaminophen
Alendronate
Amlodipine besylate
Aspirin
Aspirin (slow release)
Ciprofloxacin
Citalopram hydrobromide
Clopidogrel
Cyclosporin A
Doxycyline
Fexofenadine
Fluconazole
Fluoxetine hydrochloride
Fluticasone propionate
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
Guaifenesin
Ibuprofen
Lansoprazole
Lisinopril
Loratadine
S-Ofloxacin
Omeprazole
Paroxetine
Pseudoephedrine
Risperidone
Sertraline hydrochloride
Simvastatin
Sumatriptan
Venlafaxine
Pulp and Paper
Biopulping
Black liquor recovery
Chemimechanical pulping
Chlorine-free bleaching
Kraft pulping
Specialty Chemicals
Acetophenone
Carbon nanotubes
3-R Citronellol
Cleve's acid
Dextrins
D-Malic acid
Salicylic acid USP
Waste Treatment and Recovery
Nylon recycling
Sulphur dioxide treatment
Sulphur recovery
Toxic waste disposal
Design Projects II
Ethylhexanol from Propylene and Synthesis Gas
The Project
The Process
Feed Specifications
Utilities
Scope of Design Work Required
Process Design
Chemical Engineering Design
Mechanical Design
Control System
Data
Reactions
Boiling Points at 1 Bar
Solubilities of Gases at 30 Bar in the Liquid Phase of the First Gas-Liquid Separator
Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium of the Butyraldehydes at 1 ATM (Ref. 7)
References
Chlorobenzenes from Benzene and Chlorine
The Project
The Process
Feed Specifications
Product Specifications
Utilities
Scope of Design Work Required
Process Design
Chemical Engineering Design
Mechanical Design
Safety
Data
The Reactions
Reference
Solubilities
Thermodynamic and Physical Properties
References
Methyl Ethyl Ketone from Butyl Alcohol
The Project
The Process
Scope of Design Work Required
Data
Process Data
Reactor Data
References
Acrylonitrile from Propylene and Ammonia
The Project
The Process
Scope of Design Work Required
References
Urea from Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide
The Project
Materials Available
The Process
Physico-Chemical Data
Reactor and Stripper Design
Scope of Design Work Required
References
Hydrogen from Fuel Oil
The Project
Materials Available
Services Available
On-Stream Time
Product Specification
The Process
Data
Basic Data for CO Conversion Section of the Plant
Space Velocity
Equilibrium Data for the CO Conversion Reaction
Heat of Reaction
Basic data for CO2 Removal Using Hot Potassium Carbonate Solutions
Scope of Design Work Required
Process Design
Chemical Engineering Design
Mechanical Design
Control
References
Chlorine Recovery from Hydrogen Chloride
The Project
Materials Available
Services Available
On-Stream Time
Product Specification
The Process
Data
Reactor
Cooler/Scrubber and Expeller
Scope of Design Work Required
References
Aniline from Nitrobenzene
The Project
Materials Available
Services Available
Product Specification:
The Process
Scope of Design Work Required
Data
References
Equipment Specification (Data) Sheets
Typical Shell and Tube Heat-Exchanger Tube-Sheet Layouts
Material Safety Data Sheet
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Corrosion Chart
Physical Property Data Bank
Typical Shell and Tube Heat-Exchanger Tube-Sheet Layouts
Material Safety Data Sheet
1,2-Dichloroethane, extra dry, water <50ppm
Section 1 - Chemical Product and Company Identification
Section 2 - Composition, Information on Ingredients
Section 3 - Hazards Identification
Emergency Overview
Section 4 - First Aid Measures
Section 5 - Fire Fighting Measures
Section 6 - Accidental Release Measures
Section 7 - Handling and Storage
Section 8 - Exposure Controls, Personal Protection
Section 9 - Physical and Chemical Properties
Section 10 - Stability and Reactivity
Section 11 - Toxicological Information
Section 12 - Ecological Information
Section 13 - Disposal Considerations
Section 14 - Transport Information
Section 15 - Regulatory Information
US Federal
Section 16 - Additional Information