Cell Cycle in Development
Preface
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Experimental Systems to Explore Life Origin: Perspectives for Understanding Primitive Mechanisms of Cell Division
1.1 Studies of the Origin of Cellular Life
1.2 Protocell Membrane
1.3 Models for Studying Protocell Growth and Division
1.3.1 Growth of Vesicles
1.3.2 Protocell Vesicle´s Division
1.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Evolution of Bet-Hedging Mechanisms in Cell Cycle and Embryo Development Stimulated by Weak Linkage of Stochastic Processes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Efficiency of a ``Mild” Evolution
2.3 Bacterial Strategies for Survival: Stochasticity-Induced Population Heterogeneity
2.4 Reproductive Success in the Lake: Bet-Hedging in Daphnia
2.5 Structural Role of Specific RNAs in Oocytes: Hazard Makes a New Function
2.6 Usefulness of Unnecessary Processes for Cell Cycle Evolution: Omen Versus Omre
2.7 Bet-Hedging and Weak Linkage in the Cell Cycle and Development: Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Mechanics and Regulation of Cell Shape During the Cell Cycle
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Physical Descriptions of the Cell
3.2.1 Physical Descriptions of the Cell: A Multicomponent Complex Object
3.2.2 Simplest Models: A Liquid in a Shell
3.2.3 The Structure of the Cytoplasm
3.2.4 Spatial Variations: Cells Are Not Spheres
3.2.5 Mechanics of Cells in Tissues
3.3 Regulation of Cell Volume and Surface Area During the Cell Cycle
3.3.1 The Geometry of Cell Rounding
3.3.2 Changes in Cell Volume
3.3.3 Changes in Surface Area
3.3.3.1 Changes in Cell Surface Area
3.3.3.2 Changes in Plasma Membrane Surface Area
3.4 Shape Changes During M-Phase: Cell Rounding and Cytokinesis
3.4.1 Cell Rounding
3.4.1.1 Surface Tension and Adhesion: Opposing Forces During Cell Rounding
3.4.1.2 Moesin in Cell Rounding
3.4.2 Cytokinesis
3.5 Mechanical Changes During Interphase
3.5.1 Differences in Cell Migration During Interphase
3.5.2 Interkinetic Nuclear Migration and Cell Cycle-Specific Morphogenesis in Neural Stem Cells
3.6 Cell Cycle-Related Shape Changes in Tissues
3.6.1 Cell Rounding in Tissues
3.6.2 Division Plane Orientation
3.6.2.1 Effects of Division Plane Orientation on Tissue Organization
3.6.2.2 Mechanisms of Division Plane Orientation
3.7 Linking Cell Cycle Biochemistry and Cell Mechanics
3.7.1 CyclinB-Cdk1 and Surface Contraction Waves
3.7.2 CyclinB-Cdk1 in Cell Rounding
3.7.3 The LIMK1-Cofilin Pathway in Cell Rounding
3.7.4 Other Pathways Involved in Cell Rounding
3.7.4.1 The PAK Pathway
3.7.4.2 Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinases
3.7.4.3 pEG3/Kin1/PAR-1/MARK Kinase Family
3.7.4.4 Rap1 GTPase
3.7.4.5 The TCTP Chaperone
3.7.5 The Role of Mechanosensing in Cell Cycle Regulation
3.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: The Spindle Assembly Checkpoint: Clock or Domino?
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Brief Description of the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint
4.3 A Checkpoint or Timing Mechanism?
4.4 Is It Only Checking Kinetochore-Microtubule Attachments?
4.5 The Meiotic Spindle Assembly Checkpoint
4.6 Checkpoint Function at Kinetochores Versus Cytoplasm
4.7 How Is the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint Turned Off?
4.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Cell-Size-Dependent Control of Organelle Sizes During Development
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Diversity in Cell Size
5.1.2 Correlation Between Organelle Size and Cell Size
5.1.3 Cell-Size-Dependent Regulatory Mechanisms of Organelle Size
5.2 Nucleus
5.2.1 Nuclear-to-Cytoplasmic Ratio (N/C Ratio)
5.2.2 How Does Ploidy Affect Nuclear Size and Cell Size?
5.2.3 Possible Mechanisms to Maintain a Constant N/C Ratio: Cell Cycle Control and Cytoplasmic Regulation
5.3 Metaphase Spindle
5.3.1 The Length of the Metaphase Spindle Correlates with Cell Size but has an Upper Limit
5.3.2 Does Cell Size Control Metaphase Spindle Size?
5.4 Spindle Elongation
5.4.1 Spindle Length After Anaphase Elongation Correlates with Cell Size
5.4.2 Mechanistic Model of Cell-Size-Dependent Spindle Elongation
5.4.3 The Meaning of Cell-Size-Dependent Spindle Elongation
5.5 Contractile Ring: Constriction Speed Correlates with Cell Size
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: The First Cell Cycle of the Caenorhabditis elegans Embryo: Spatial and Temporal Control of an Asymmetric Cell Division
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Temporal Control: The Idea About a Cell Cycle Clock
6.1.2 An Elegant Model: C. elegans
6.1.3 Regulation of the Embryonic Cell Cycle in C. elegans
6.2 The Nuclear and Centrosome Cycle
6.2.1 Meiosis and DNA Synthesis Phase
6.2.2 Prophase and Prometaphase
6.2.3 Metaphase and Anaphase
6.3 Asymmetric Cell Division: PAR Polarity
6.3.1 Polarity Establishment Phase
6.3.2 Polarity Maintenance Phase
6.3.3 Repositioning the PAR Boundary to Match the Cytokinesis Furrow
6.4 Cytoplasmic Segregation of Cell Fate Determinants
6.4.1 A Gradient in MEX Proteins Determines the Somatic Lineage
6.4.2 Spatial Regulation of Protein Mobility Generates Segregation of Cytoplasmic Components
6.5 Microtubule Dynamics Throughout the Cell Cycle
6.5.1 Interphase and Prophase
6.5.2 Prometaphase
6.5.3 Posterior Displacement of the Spindle During Metaphase and Anaphase
6.5.4 The Role of the Central Spindle During Anaphase
6.5.5 Two Consecutive Signals Determine the Cleavage Plane of the Embryo
6.6 The Differential Segregation of Cell Cycle Regulators Determines Cell Cycle Timing and Cell Fate of the Daughter Cells
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: EGG Molecules Couple the Oocyte-to-Embryo Transition with Cell Cycle Progression
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 C. elegans, a Model Organism
7.1.2 C. elegans Reproductive Tract and Gametes
7.2 The Oocyte-to-Embryo Transition in C. elegans: EGG-3
7.3 A New Player in the Complex: EGG-4/5
7.4 Perspectives
References
Chapter 8: Cell Cycle in Ascidian Eggs and Embryos
8.1 Introduction to Ascidians and the Urochordates/Tunicates
8.2 Cell Cycle During Oogenesis and Fertilization
8.2.1 Oogenesis
8.2.2 Oocyte Maturation
8.2.3 Sperm-Triggered Calcium Oscillations and Exit from Metaphase I Arrest in Ascidians
8.2.3.1 Metaphase I Arrest
8.2.3.2 Sperm-Triggered Ca2+ Oscillations Trigger Egg Activation
8.3 Embryonic Cell Cycles in the Ascidian
8.3.1 The Duration and Number of Cell Cycles Are Precisely Controlled
8.3.1.1 The Rate of Cell Division
8.3.1.2 The Orientation of the Cell Division Plane and the Centrosome-Attracting Body or CAB
8.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Regulatory Pathways Coordinating Cell Cycle Progression in Early Xenopus Development
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Key Players Driving the Oocyte Meiotic Cell Cycle
9.1.2 Overcoming Oocyte G2-Arrest
9.1.3 Meiotic Maturation
9.1.4 Fertilization
9.1.5 Mitotic Cycles
9.2 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 10: Control of DNA Replication by Cyclin-Dependent Kinases in Development
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Organisation of DNA Replication and Transcription in the Early Xenopus Embryo
10.3 Cyclin-Dependent Kinases and the Control of Initiation of DNA Replication
10.4 Chromatin and Replication Control by CDKs
10.5 Functional Redundancy of CDK-Cyclin Complexes, and its Limits
10.6 Replication Origin Organisation, Replication Timing and Control by CDKs
10.7 CDK Requirements for S-Phase Entry from a Quiescent State
10.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Greatwall Kinase, ARPP-19 and Protein Phosphatase 2A: Shifting the Mitosis Paradigm
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Regulated Activity of Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) Is Required for Entry into and Exit from Mitosis
11.2.1 PP2A, a Regulator of Cdk1-Cyclin B Activity
11.2.2 PP2A, a Regulator of the Phosphorylation Level of Cdk1 Targets
11.3 The Greatwall Kinase Is a Key Negative Regulator of PP2A
11.4 Greatwall Phosphorylates ARPP-19/α-Endosulfine and Converts it into a Specific and Potent Inhibitor of PP2A that Is Essent
11.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: The Role of RanGTP Gradient in Vertebrate Oocyte Maturation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mechanisms of Ran-Regulated Cellular Functions
12.2.1 RanGTP Gradient and its Role in Transport Between Nucleus and Cytoplasm
12.2.2 Mitotic Functions of Ran
12.2.2.1 Activity Gradients and Recruitment to Structures: Two Mechanisms of Mitotic Ran Function
12.2.2.2 Short- and Long-Range Effect of RanGTP Gradient
12.2.2.3 Visualization of RanGTP Gradient by FRET
12.2.2.4 Mitotic Regulation of Ran and of its GTP/GDP Nucleotide Cycle
12.2.2.5 RanGTP Gradient Function at the Exit from Mitosis
12.2.3 Ran-Regulated Mitotic and Meiotic Spindle Assembly Pathways
12.2.3.1 Importin-Regulated SAFs
12.2.3.2 Exportin-Regulated Mitotic Functions
12.3 Ran Functions in Vertebrate Oocyte Maturation
12.3.1 The Role of Nuclear Transport in GVBD
12.3.2 Ran Function in the Assembly and Function of Meiotic Spindles In Vivo
12.3.3 Ran Function in Asymmetric Meiotic Cell Divisions
12.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 13: Cell Cycle Control of Germ Cell Differentiation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Specification of the Germ Cell Lineage
13.3 Germ Cell Migration and Proliferation
13.3.1 Signals for Migration
13.3.2 Proliferation During Migration
13.3.3 Factors that Control PGC Proliferation and Survival During Migration
13.4 Genital Ridge Colonisation and Germ Cell Sex Differentiation
13.4.1 Morphology and Identity of Resident Gonocytes
13.4.2 Mitotic Proliferation of Resident Gonocytes
13.4.3 Factors that Affect Gonocyte Proliferation
13.4.4 Somatic Cell Signals for Germ Cell Sex
13.5 Oogonia: Induction and Control of Meiotic Entry
13.5.1 Induction of Meiosis
13.5.2 Cell Cycle Control of Meiosis
13.6 Spermatogonia: Initiation and Control of G1/G0 Arrest
13.6.1 Factors that Modulate Spermatogonia Proliferation
13.6.2 Control of G1/G0 Arrest
13.6.3 Spermatogonia and Radiosensitivity
13.7 Death in the Germline
13.7.1 The Cause of Death
13.7.2 Stimuli and Signals for Death
13.7.3 Regulators and Effectors of Death
13.8 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Protein Kinases and Protein Phosphatases that Regulate Meiotic Maturation in Mouse Oocytes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Prophase I Meiotic Arrest
14.2.1 Cyclin Dependent Kinase 1: Part I
14.2.2 WEE2 (Previously Called WEE1B) and MYT1 Kinases
14.2.3 Protein Kinase A
14.2.4 CDC14B Phosphatase
14.2.5 Protein Phosphatase I and Phosphatase II (PP2)
14.3 Meiotic Resumption and Progression to Metaphase of MI (G2/M Transition)
14.3.1 Cell Cycle Regulators
14.3.1.1 CDK1: Part 2
14.3.1.2 CDC25A and CDC25B Phosphatases
14.3.1.3 Protein Kinase B/Akt
14.3.2 Spindle Regulators
14.3.2.1 Aurora Kinases
AURKA
14.3.2.2 Polo-Like Kinase
14.4 Metaphase of MI to Metaphase of MII Transition (MI Exit)
14.4.1 Cell Cycle Regulators
14.4.1.1 CDK1: Part 3
14.4.1.2 CDC14A and CDC14B
14.4.1.3 Protein Phosphatase 2A
14.4.2 Spindle Regulators
14.4.2.1 AURKB and AURKC
14.4.2.2 FYN: An Src Family Kinase
14.4.2.3 Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3
14.5 Metaphase II Arrest (MII Arrest) and Exit (MII Exit)
14.5.1 Cell Cycle Regulators
14.5.1.1 CDK1: Part 4
14.5.1.2 Mos/MEK/MAPK Pathway
14.5.1.3 Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Kinase II
14.5.1.4 FYN Kinase
14.5.2 Spindle Regulators
14.5.2.1 Protein Kinase C and Gycogen Synthase Kinase 3
14.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 15: Anaphase-Promoting Complex Control in Female Mouse Meiosis
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Female Meiosis Overview in the Mouse
15.1.2 MPF in Mitosis and Meiosis
15.1.3 APC in Mitosis and Meiosis
15.2 The APC and Meiotic Resumption
15.2.1 Ability to Resume Meiosis of Small Oocytes
15.2.2 Protein Kinase A and Prophase Arrest
15.2.3 APCCdh1 Control of Cyclin B1
15.2.4 APCCdh1 Regulation During Prophase I Arrest
15.3 The APC and Meiosis I
15.3.1 Overview of Meiosis I
15.3.2 Assembly of the First Meiotic Spindle
15.3.3 How Reductional Division Is Achieved in Meiosis I
15.3.4 Timing of the First Meiotic Division Through the SAC
15.3.5 SAC Independent Timer to Meiosis I
15.4 The APC and Meiosis II
15.4.1 Overview of Meiosis II
15.4.2 Calcium Induced CamKII Activation at Fertilization
15.4.3 Emi2 and c-mos: CamKII Targets
15.4.4 Activation of APC
15.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Established and Novel Cdk/Cyclin Complexes Regulating the Cell Cycle and Development
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Cdk and Cyclin Family Members
16.2.1 Cdks and Cyclins as Transcriptional Regulators
16.2.2 Cdks and Cyclins with Neuronal Functions
16.2.3 Cdks and Cyclins in DNA Damage Repair
16.2.4 Mammalian CAK Activity
16.2.5 Cdks in Meiosis
16.2.6 Emerging Players in Cell Cycle Regulation
16.2.7 The Cell Cycle in Embryonic Stem Cells
16.3 The Speedy/RINGO Family of Proteins
16.3.1 Activation of Cdks by Speedy/RINGO Proteins
16.3.2 Speedy/RINGO Proteins and Cancer
16.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 17: Function of the A-Type Cyclins During Gametogenesis and Early Embryogenesis
17.1 Introduction to the A-Type Cyclins
17.2 Expression and Function of the A-Type Cyclins During Gametogenesis
17.2.1 Unique Features of Mammalian Gametogenesis from a Cell Cycle Perspective
17.2.2 The A-Type Cyclins in the Male Germ Line
17.2.3 The A-Type Cyclins in the Female Germ Line
17.3 The Early Mouse Embryo and the A-Type Cyclins
17.4 Regulation of Expression of the A-Type Cyclins in the Germ Line
17.5 Insight from Other Model Organisms
17.5.1 An Evolutionary Perspective
17.5.2 Drosophila
17.5.3 Xenopus
17.6 Unanswered Questions and Future Directions
17.6.1 What Are the Critical Interacting Proteins and Substrates of Cyclin A1 and A2 in the Germ Line and Early Embryo?
17.6.2 Could the A-Type Cyclins Have Cdk Independent Functions in the Germ Line?
17.6.3 Does Cyclin A2 Play an Important Role in the Germ Line?
17.6.4 Is There a Role for Cyclin A1 in Human Infertility?
17.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Cell Cycle Adaptations and Maintenance of Genomic Integrity in Embryonic Stem Cells and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Pluripotent Stem Cells
18.2.1 Embryonic Stem Cells
18.2.2 Nuclear Reprogramming and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
18.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
18.3.1 Somatic Cells
18.3.2 Early Embryos
18.3.3 Embryonic Stem Cells
18.3.3.1 Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells
18.3.3.2 Nonhuman Primate Embryonic Stem Cells
18.3.3.3 Human Embryonic Stem Cells
18.4 DNA Damage Responses
18.4.1 Checkpoint Activation
18.4.1.1 Somatic Cells
18.4.1.2 Early Embryos
18.4.1.3 Embryonic Stem Cells
18.4.2 Double Strand Break Repair
18.4.2.1 Nonhomologous End Joining
18.4.2.2 Homologous Recombination
18.4.2.3 Early Embryos
18.4.2.4 Embryonic Stem Cells
18.4.3 Maintenance of Genomic Integrity in ES Cells
18.4.4 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Genomic Stability
18.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Cell Cycle Regulation by microRNAs in Stem Cells
19.1 Introduction: Self-Renewal Process of Stem Cells
19.2 Cell Cycle Regulation
19.3 miRNA Biogenesis
19.4 miRNAs Regulate the G1/S Transition in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells
19.5 Cell Cycle Regulation by miRNAs in Human Embryonic Stem Cells
19.6 Cell Cycle Regulation by miRNAs in Somatic Stem Cells
19.7 Cell Cycle Regulation by miRNAs in Cancer
19.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Cell Cycle Regulation During Proliferation and Differentiation of Mammalian Muscle Precursor Cells
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Molecular Basis of Cell Cycle Regulation
20.2.1 Sèvres Standard of Mammalian Cell Cycle Regulation1
20.2.2 Embryonic and Stem Cell Cycle Variants
20.3 Cell Cycle and the Developing Skeletal Muscle
20.3.1 Outline of Mouse Embryo Myogenesis
20.3.2 Some Lessons on Myogenesis from the Cell Cycle Mouse Mutants
20.3.3 Epigenetic Regulation of Proliferation and Differentiation of Muscle Precursor Cells
20.4 Quiescence, Cell Cycle Reentry, and Differentiation of Adult Skeletal Muscle Precursor Cells
20.4.1 Satellite Cells and Their Function in Muscle Regeneration
20.4.2 Satellite Cells´ Niche and Self-Renewal
20.4.3 Maintaining Quiescence and Inducing Activation of MPCs
20.4.4 Regulating Proliferation of MPCs
20.4.5 Molecular Signature of Satellite Cells and MPCs
20.5 Last But Not Least - The Impact of Extracellular Factors on the MPCs Cell Cycles
20.5.1 Signaling Pathways Activated in Myogenic Cells
20.5.2 Growth Factors Impacting on MPCs
20.5.2.1 Hepatocyte Growth Factor
20.5.2.2 IGF-I and IGF-II
20.5.2.3 Fibroblast Growth Factors
20.5.2.4 TGFbeta Family
20.5.2.5 Cytokines Impacting on MPCs
20.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 21: Drosophila Neural Stem Cells: Cell Cycle Control of Self-Renewal, Differentiation, and Termination in Brain Development
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Drosophila Neuroblasts are Neural Stem Cell-Like Progenitors
21.3 Asymmetric Cell Divisions Balance Self-Renewal and Differentiation
21.4 Cell Cycle Regulators Can Affect Asymmetric Neuroblast Divisions
21.5 Neural Differentiation is Influenced by the Timing of Cell Cycle Exit
21.6 Programmed Cell Death Contributes to the Termination of Proliferation
21.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22: Control of Neuronal Ploidy During Vertebrate Development
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Mechanisms Creating Somatic Tetraploidy in Neurons
22.3 Regulation of Endoreduplication and Somatic Tetraploidy in Neuronal Progenitors
22.3.1 Maintenance of the G2-Like Status in the Tetraploid Neurons and Early Cell Death During Nervous System Development
22.3.2 Avoidance of Multiple S-Phase Reentries in Tetraploid Neurons
22.4 Somatic Tetraploidy: A Physiological View
22.5 Somatic Tetraploidy in Neurons and Neurodegeneration: A Pathophysiological View
22.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 23: Cell Cycle Deregulation in the Neurons of Alzheimer´s Disease
23.1 Introduction
23.2 The Cell Cycle
23.3 Alzheimer´s Disease and the Cell Cycle Reentrant Neuron
23.4 Cell Cycle-Related Pathology of Alzheimer´s Disease
23.5 Cell Cycle Dysregulation Commonalities for Alzheimer´s Disease and Cancer
23.6 Conclusion
References
Index