Carotenoids: Structure and Function in the Human Body

✍ Scribed by Muhammad Zia-Ul-Haq (editor), Saikat Dewanjee (editor), Muhammad Riaz (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 862
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Plants produce chemicals as part of their normal metabolic activities. These include primary metabolites found in all plants, such as sugars and fats, as well as secondary metabolites, which can have therapeutic effects in humans and be refined to produce drugs. Plants synthesize a bewildering variety of phytochemicals, but most are derivatives of a few biochemical motifs. Numerous herbal-derived substances have been evaluated for their therapeutic potential. These include alkaloids, coumarins, saponins, plant pigments and flavonoids. Flavonoids, carotenoids and anthocyanins are probably the best known of these substances due to their antioxidant properties.

Carotenoids: Structure and Function in the Human Bodypresents comprehensive coverage of carotenoids. The text covers the scientific literature and clinical significance of this organic pigment, with an emphasis on its therapeutic potential. The authors approach carotenoids from arange of perspectives, from their structural and physicochemical properties to their distribution in nature, interaction with the human metabolism, and use as a coloring agent in various products. The intake, metabolism and secretion of anthocyanins in the human body are covered in-depth, as are the biosynthetic pathways through which these compounds are synthesized in the natural system. Factors affecting stability and extraction are listed, and health-related uses and biological activities are covered in great detail. Present and future trends in carotenoid research are also presented. This book provides a solid background in carotenoids for researchers and professionals in food science, food technology, nutrition, biology, chemistry and medical sciences.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
About the Authors
Chapter 1: Historical and Introductory Aspects of Carotenoids
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Carotenoids
1.3 Carotenoids Role in life
1.4 Functions in Flora, Microbes and Other Organisms
1.4.1 Light-Harvesting Accessory Pigments in Photosynthesis
1.4.2 Role in Reproduction
1.4.3 Blue Light Filtering
1.4.4 Intercellular Communication
1.4.5 Immune Function
1.4.6 Cognitive Function
1.4.7 Role in Membrane Structures
1.4.8 Chemotaxonomic and Intake Markers
1.4.9 Antioxidants/Pro-Oxidants
1.4.10 Provitamin A Activity
1.5 Synthesis and Presence
1.6 Animal Carotenoids
1.7 Plant Carotenoids
1.7.1 Vegetable Carotenoids
1.7.2 Fruit Carotenoids
1.7.3 Leaf Carotenoids
1.8 Carotenoproteins Complexes
1.9 Key Carotenoids
1.9.1 Carotenes (α-.β- and γ-Carotene)
1.9.2 Lutein and Zeaxanthin
1.9.3 Lycopene
1.9.4 Astaxanthin
1.9.5 Canthaxanthin
1.9.6 β -Cryptoxanthin
1.10 Properties, Activities and Functions
1.10.1 Chirality
1.10.2 Esterification
1.10.3 Aggregation
1.10.4 Chemistry
1.10.5 Apocarotenoids
1.10.6 Stability
1.10.7 Analysis
1.10.8 Coloring Agents
1.10.9 Cosmetics
1.10.10 Nutraceuticals
1.10.11 Anticancer Effects
1.10.12 Macular Pigments
1.11 RDA & Clinical Uses
1.12 Natural vs Synthetic
1.13 Commercial Production & Uses
1.14 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Chemistry of Carotenoids
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structure of a Typical Carotenoid
2.3 Classification of Carotenoids [10]
2.3.1 Classification I: Chemical Structure
2.3.2 Classification II
2.3.3 Classification III: Structural Modification
2.3.3.1 Functions of Apocarotenoids
2.3.3.2 Dials
2.3.4 Classification IV: Function
2.3.5 Classification V: Carbon Number
2.3.6 Classification VI: Domains of Life and Chemical Modification
2.3.7 Classification VII: Partition Character
2.3.8 Classification VIII: Natural Occurrence
2.3.9 Classification IX: End Groups
2.3.10 Classification X: Based on Provitamin A
2.4 Naming and Numbering of Carotenoids
2.4.1 Trivial Names
2.4.2 Structure of Carotenoids
2.5 IUPAC Naming of Carotenoids [27]
2.6 Carotenoids Aggregates
2.6.1 H-Aggregates
2.6.2 J-Aggregates
2.7 Association of Carotenoids
2.7.1 Associations with Sugars
2.7.2 Associations with Proteins
2.7.3 Associations with Sulphates
2.7.4 Association with Fatty Acids
2.8 Physical Properties of Carotenoids
2.9 Physico-Chemical Properties of Carotenoids
2.9.1 Melting Points
2.9.2 Size and Shape
2.9.3 Z-Isomerization
2.9.4 Absorption of Light and Colour
2.9.5 Effects of Substituents
2.10 Chemical Properties of Carotenoids
2.10.1 Oxidation
2.10.1.1 Autoxidation
2.10.2 Halogenation
2.10.3 Cyclization
2.11 Stereochemistry
2.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Carotenoids Synthesis and Isomerism
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Structure, and Physico-Chemical Properties
3.3 Synthesis of Precursor Units [19]
3.3.1 Synthesis of Precursor in Laboratory
3.3.2 Synthesis of Precursor at Industrial Level
3.3.2.1 By Butadiene
3.3.2.2 By Furan
3.3.2.3 By Acetals
3.3.3 Synthesis of C10 Monophosphonium Salt
3.3.4 Synthesis of Bifunctional Isoprenoid Precursor
3.4 Synthesis of Acyclic Carotenoids
3.4.1 3,4-Didehydro-¥-End Group Carotenoids
3.4.2 1,2-Dihydro-¥-End Group Carotenoids
3.4.3 1-Hydroxy-3,4-Didehydro-L,2-Dihydro-¥-End Group Carotenoids
3.5 Synthesis of Cyclic Carotenoids
3.5.1 Carotenoids with β-End Group [23]
3.5.1.1 Carotenoids with the 4-Hydroxy-β-End Group
3.5.1.2 3,4-Dihydroxy-β-End Group Carotenoids
3.5.1.3 5,6-Dihydroxy-5,6-Dihydro-β-End Group Carotenoids
3.5.1.4 3,5,6-Trihydroxy-5,6-Dihydro-β-End Group Carotenoids
3.5.1.5 5,6-Epoxy-5,6-Dihydro-β-End Group Carotenoids
3.5.1.6 4-Oxo-β-End Group Carotenoids
3.5.2 Carotenoids with Ɛ-End Group [24]
3.5.3 γ-End Group Carotenoids
3.5.4 Carotenoids with κ-End Group
3.5.5 Carotenoids with Aromatic End Group [27]
3.6 Synthesis of Acetylenic Carotenoids
3.7 Synthesis of Allenic Carotenoids
3.7.1 Synthesis of C15-Epoxyformyl Ester
3.7.2 Synthesis of C22-Allenic Sulphone
3.8 Synthesis of Butenolid Carotenoids
3.9 Carotenoids and their Isomers
3.10 Synthesis of z-Isomers
3.11 Effect of z-Isomerization on Physicochemical Properties of Carotenoids
3.12 Analysis of Isomers
3.12.1 UV/Vis-Spectroscopy
3.12.2 NMR Spectroscopy
3.12.3 IR and Resonance Raman Spectroscopy
3.12.4 Mass Spectrometry
3.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Apocarotenoids
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Classification of Apocarotenoids
4.1.2 Apocarotenoid Functions
4.2 Biosynthesis of Apocarotenoids
4.2.1 Production of Apocarotenoids
4.3 Apocarotenoids in Foods
4.4 Apocarotenoids in Mammals
4.5 Biological Functions of Apocarotenoids
4.5.1 Absorption of Apocarotenoids in Gastrointestinal Tract
4.6 Saffron- Apocarotenoid
4.6.1 Saffron World Production
4.6.2 Therapeutic Potential of Saffron
4.6.3 Antioxidant Activity of Saffron
4.6.4 Bioactive Compounds of Saffron
4.7 Saffron Health Benefits
4.7.1 Bioactivities of Saffron Components
4.7.2 Ischemic Heart Diseases
4.7.3 Memory Loss
4.7.4 Neurodegenerative Disorders
4.7.5 Anti-convulsant Role
4.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Role of Carotenoids in Photosynthesis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Role of Carotenoids as Accessory Pigment
5.2.1 Light Harvesting by Carotenoids
5.2.2 Photoprotection
5.2.3 Xanthophyll Cycle
5.3 Spectral Properties of Carotenoids
5.3.1 Absorption Spectra
5.3.2 Absorption Maxima
5.3.3 Effect of Extraction Solvents on Spectral Characteristics of Carotenoids
5.4 Excitation Energy Transfer: Sensitized Fluorescence and Photosynthesis
5.4.1 Photosynthetic Yields in Different Wavelength Regions
5.4.2 Sensitized Fluorescence: Excitation of Chl a Fluorescence by Different Wavelengths of Light Absorbed by Carotenoids
5.4.2.1 Energy Transfer from S2 State
5.4.2.2 Xanthophylls in CP29 Transfer Excitations to Chlorophyll a
5.4.2.3 In LHCII Lut and Vio Transfer to Chl a and Neo Transfers to Chl b
5.4.2.4 Coupling Between Carotenoid S2 State and Chlorophyll Excited States
5.4.2.5 Energy Transfer from the S1 State
5.5 Light Absorption and Transfer of Resonance Energy to Reaction Center
5.5.1 Resonance Energy
5.5.2 Models of Energy Transfer to Reaction Center
5.5.2.1 Resonance Energy Transfer Model
Mechanism of Energy Transfers [128–130]
5.5.2.2 Electron Exchange
5.6 Dependencies of Carotenoids Assisted Photosynthesis in Plant Adaptive to Low Light Intensities
5.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Carotenoids as Coloring Agents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mechanism of Coloration by Carotenoids
6.3 Carotenoid Coloration in Microbes
6.3.1 Algae
6.3.2 Bacteria
6.3.3 Fungus
6.4 Carotenoid Coloration in Plants
6.4.1 Leaves
6.4.2 Flowers
6.4.3 Fruits and Vegetables
6.5 Carotenoid Coloration in Animals
6.5.1 Poriferans
6.5.2 Coelenterates
6.5.3 Arthropods
6.5.4 Molluscans
6.5.5 Echinodermatans
6.5.6 Protochordates (Tunicates)
6.5.7 Pisces
6.5.8 Birds
6.5.9 Mammals
6.6 Carotenoids as Food Colorants
6.7 Carotenoids as Dyes
6.8 Carotenoids in Industry
6.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Effect of Processing on Foods Containing Carotenoids
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Processing of Carotenoids
7.2.1 Home Processing of Carotenoid Based Foods
7.2.1.1 Boiling and Freezing
7.2.1.2 Chopping, Peeling and Juicing
7.2.1.3 Baking, Grilling and Frying
7.2.2 Processing of Carotenoid Based Foods at Domestic and Industrial Level
7.2.2.1 Drying
7.2.2.2 Freeze-Drying
7.2.2.3 Blanching
7.2.2.4 Peeling
7.2.2.5 Coating
7.2.3 Advanced Processing Techniques at Industrial Scale
7.2.3.1 High Pressure Processing (HPP)/ (Cold Pasteurization Technique)
7.2.3.2 High Pressure Homogenization (HPH)
7.2.3.3 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP)
7.2.3.4 Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF)
Moderate-Intensity Pulsed Electric Field (MIPEF)
High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Field Processing (HIPEF)
7.2.3.5 Ultrasonication
7.2.3.6 Pasteurization
7.2.4 Microencapsulation Method
7.2.4.1 Spray Drying
7.2.4.2 Spray Coating
7.2.4.3 Centrifugal Extrusion
7.2.4.4 Annular Jet
7.2.4.5 Spinning Disk
7.2.4.6 Prilling
7.2.5 Nano-Encapsulation Techniques
7.2.5.1 Top Down Nano-Encapsulation Technique
Electro-spraying
Extrusion Gelation Techniques
Electrospinning
Blend Electrospinning
Coaxial Electrospinning
Emulsion Electrospinning
Emulsification Solvent Evaporation
Nano Spray Drying
Emulsification
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
7.2.5.2 Bottom up Nano-Encapsulation Technique
Nanoprecipitation
Layer by Layer Deposition
Inclusion Complexation
Coacervation
7.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Stability of Carotenoids
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Factors Effecting the Chemical Stability of Carotenoids in Foods
8.2.1 Oxidation of Carotenoids
8.2.2 Autoxidation of β-Carotene
8.2.2.1 Mechanistic Pathways of Autoxidation of β-Carotene
8.2.3 Thermal Degradation of Carotenoids
8.2.4 Photodegradation
8.2.5 Degradation by Singlet Oxygen and Free Radicals
8.2.6 Electron Transfer Reactions and Isomerization
8.2.7 Degradation of Carotenoid by Acid
8.3 Stability of Carotenoids in Biofortified Foods
8.4 Encapsulation of Carotenoids
8.4.1 Biopolymers Based Nanocarriers for Carotenoids Encapsulation
8.4.1.1 Polysaccharides as Nanocarriers
Alginates
Cellulose
Chitosan
Dextrins
Octenyl Succinic Anhydride (OSA) Modified Starches
Pectins
Starches
8.4.1.2 Protein-Based Nanocarriers
Caseins
Cereal Proteins
Gelatin
Soy Proteins
Whey Proteins
8.4.1.3 Lipid-Based Nanocarriers
Nanoemulsions
Nanoliposomes
Niosomes
Bilosomes
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs)
Nano Structured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)
8.4.2 Nano-Hydrogels
8.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Analysis of Carotenoids
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Prerequisites for Carotenoid Analysis
9.3 Appropriate Selection of Analytical Technique
9.4 Quantitative Analysis
9.5 Total Carotenoid Content (UV and Visible Spectroscopy)
9.6 Quantification of Individual Carotenoids
9.7 Agitation, Homogenization and Shaking
9.8 Soxhlet Extraction
9.9 Ultrasound Assisted Extraction
9.10 Electro-Plasmolysis (EP)
9.11 Water-Bath Extraction
9.12 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
9.13 Matrix Solid Phase Dispersion (MSPD)
9.14 Centrifugal Extraction
9.15 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
9.16 Enzymatic Pretreatment
9.17 Supercritical Fluid (SFE)
9.18 Pressurized Liquid Extraction
9.19 Identification and Quantification
9.20 Planar (Paper/Thin Layer) Chromatography
9.21 Open-Column Chromatography
9.22 Gas Chromatography
9.23 Liquid Chromatography
9.24 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
9.25 2D LC
9.26 Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UHPLC)
9.27 Countercurrent Chromatography (CCC)
9.28 Hydrostatic Method/Centrifugal Partition Chromatography (CPC)
9.29 Hydrodynamic (HSCCC and HPCCC)/High-Speed CCC
9.30 Electrochemical Detection
9.31 Amperometric-ECD
9.32 Coulometric-ECD
9.33 Carotenoid Analysis by Metabolomics Tools
9.34 NMR
9.34.1 Background
9.34.2 Proton NMR Spectroscopy
9.35 NMR Coupling with Chromatography
9.36 Mass Spectrometry
9.36.1 Ionization Methods for Carotenoids
9.37 Chemical Facilitation to Improve Ionization
9.38 Infrared Spectroscopy (Near and Mid)
9.39 Raman Spectroscopy
9.40 Overview of Carotenoid Studies in 2019
9.41 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 10: Carotenoids Fortification
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Agriculture Techniques
10.2.1 Breeding Methods
10.2.2 Ontogenic Factors/Ontogeny
10.2.3 Grafting
10.2.4 Environmental Factors
10.2.5 Biotic Factors
10.2.6 Abiotic Factors
10.2.7 Cultivar and Climatic or Geographic Effects
10.2.7.1 Seasonal Variations
10.2.7.2 Cultivation System
10.2.7.3 Light
10.2.7.4 Temperature
10.2.7.5 Chemical Stress
Minerals/Fertilizers
Salt and Droughts
10.2.8 Radiations
10.2.9 Post-harvest Handling/Processing and Storage
10.3 Bio-fortification
10.3.1 Phytoene Synthase
10.3.2 The Xanthophyll Cycle (Fig. 10.4)
10.3.3 Genetics Changes in Crops Effect Level of Carotenoids
10.3.3.1 Rice
10.3.3.2 Tomato
10.3.3.3 Carrots
10.3.3.4 Potatoes
10.3.3.5 Maize
10.3.3.6 Canola
10.4 Fortification of Carotenoids and Health
10.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Metabolism of Carotenoids
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Food Sources and Bioavailability of Carotenoid
11.3 Bioaccessibility and Intestinal Absorption
11.3.1 Release of Carotenoid from Food Matrix
11.3.2 Distribution in the Digestive Tract
11.3.3 Solublization in the Mixed Micelles
11.4 Dietary Factors Affecting Bioavailability
11.4.1 Food Matrix
11.4.1.1 Carotenoids in Fruits and Vegetables
11.4.1.2 Location of Carotenoids
11.4.2 Food Cooking and Processing
11.4.3 Dietary Fat
11.4.4 Dietary Fiber
11.4.5 Alcohol Consumption
11.4.6 Interactions Among Carotenoids
11.4.7 Bioavailability of Carotenoids from Whole Foods and Supplements
11.4.8 Carotenoid Structure and Isomers
11.4.9 Host Related Factors
11.5 Post-Absorption Metabolism of Carotenoid
11.5.1 In Circulation
11.5.2 In Tissues and Organs
11.5.2.1 Cell Surface Proteins
11.5.2.2 Expression of Membrane Receptors
11.5.2.3 LDL Receptors
11.5.2.4 Skin
11.5.3 At Cellular Level
11.5.3.1 Pro-Vitamin A Carotenoids
11.5.3.2 Non-Provitamin A Carotenoids
11.6 Regulation of Carotenoid Metabolism
11.7 Future Trends in Carotenoid Research
11.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Carotenoids as Antioxidants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Importance of Carotenoids as Antioxidants
12.2.1 Antioxidant Activity and Its Mechanism
12.2.2 Antioxidant Capacity
12.3 Antioxidant Protection of Carotenoids
12.4 Importance of Carotenoids as Antioxidants in Disease Treatment
12.4.1 Cancer
12.4.2 Skin Problems
12.4.3 Eye Problems
12.4.4 Diabetes
12.4.5 Coronary Artery Disease
12.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Carotenoids as Anticancer Agents
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Free Radicals in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.2.1 Free Radicals and Cancer Pathogenesis
13.2.2 Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids by Targeting Free Radicals
13.3 Wnt Signaling in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.3.1 Wnt Pathway in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.3.2 Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids by Targeting Wnt Signaling
13.4 IGF-1R/IGR-1R Signaling in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.4.1 IGF-1R/IGR-1R Pathway in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.4.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoid in the IGF-1R/IGR-1R Signaling
13.5 Autophagy in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.5.1 Autophagy in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.5.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoid in the Autophagy
13.6 PI3K/AKT Signaling in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.6.1 PI3K/AKT Signaling and Cancer
13.6.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoid in the PI3K/AKT Pathway
13.7 PPARs in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.7.1 PPARs in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.7.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoids by Regulating PPARs
13.8 NF-κB Signaling in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.8.1 NF-κB in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.8.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoid in NF-κB Pathway
13.9 CDKs in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.9.1 CDKs in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.9.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoids by Regulating CDKs
13.10 Other Molecules/Receptors/Signaling Pathways in Cancer Pathogenesis and Chemo-preventive Role of Carotenoids
13.10.1 Other Molecules/Receptors/Signaling Pathways in Cancer Pathogenesis
13.10.2 Pharmacotherapeutic Targets of Carotenoids
13.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Carotenoids as Antidiabetic Agents
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Carotenoids as Antidiabetic Agents
14.2.1 Astaxanthin
14.2.2 Zeaxanthin
14.2.3 Bixin
14.2.4 β-Carotene
14.2.5 Lutein
14.2.6 Lycopene
14.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Carotenoids as Antiparkinson Agents
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Overview of PD
15.3 Protective Role of Carotenoids in PD
15.3.1 α-Carotene
15.3.2 β-Carotene
15.3.3 Retinol
15.3.4 Lycopene
15.3.5 Fucoxanthin
15.3.6 Zeaxanthin
15.3.7 Astaxanthin
15.3.8 Canthaxanthin
15.3.9 β-Cryptoxanthin
15.3.10 Lutein
15.3.11 Crocin
15.3.12 Crocetin
15.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Role of Carotenoids in Neurological Diseases
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Alzheimer’s Disease
16.3 Vascular Dementia
16.4 Lewy Body Dementia
16.5 Mild Cognitive Impairment
16.6 Nuerological Trauma
16.7 Brain Tumor
16.8 Schizophrenia
16.9 Depression
16.10 Parkinson’s Disease
16.11 Multiple Sclerosis
16.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Carotenoids as Antiobesity Agents
17.1 The Role of Carotenoids in Obesity
17.2 Anti-obesity Effect of Pro-vitamins A Carotenoids and Retinoic Acid
17.3 Cryptoxanthin
17.4 Astaxanthin
17.5 Anti-obesity Effect of Fucoxanthin
17.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Carotenoids in Liver and Lung Diseases
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Carotenoids Against Liver Disease
18.2.1 Pathogenesis of NAFLD
18.2.2 Important Carotenoids
18.2.2.1 β-Carotene
18.2.2.2 Lycopene
18.2.2.3 Lutein
18.2.3 β-Cryptoxanthin
18.2.3.1 Other Carotenoids
18.2.4 Liver Therapy by Carotenoids
18.3 Lung Diseases and Carotenoids
18.3.1 Factors Associated with Health of Lungs
18.3.1.1 Dietary Factors
18.3.2 Different Carotenoids and Risk of Lung Diseases
18.3.2.1 Asthma
18.3.2.2 Tuberculosis
18.3.2.3 Lung Cancer
18.3.2.4 Oxidative DNA Damage in Lung Epithelial Cells
18.4 Risk Factors of Liver Diseases
18.4.1 Insulin Resistance
18.4.2 Increases Oxidative Stress
18.5 Case Studies (Table 18.3)
18.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Eye Sight and Carotenoids
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Macular Carotenoids
19.2.1 Advantage of Polyene Chain in Macula
19.2.2 Chemical Nature of Macular Pigments
19.2.2.1 Biochemistry and Pharmacokinetics.
Interaction with Other Nutrients or Drugs
19.3 Anatomy of the Eye
19.4 Commercially Available Synthetic Carotenoids for Eye Protection
19.4.1 Complete Vision Cycle
19.5 Vision Abnormalities Related to Carotenoids Imbalance
19.5.1 Xerophthalmia
19.5.1.1 Nyctalopia
19.5.2 Conjunctival Xerosis (Plate IA, D and Plate IIA, B, C)
19.5.3 Bitot’s Spot (Plate IB, Plate IIA, B, C, and Plate IV)
19.5.4 Corneal Xerosis
19.5.5 Ulceration (Plate IE)
19.5.6 Keratomalacia (Plate IF and Plate IIIB)
19.5.7 Corneal Scarring
19.5.8 Age Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)
19.5.9 Cataract
19.5.10 Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP)
19.5.11 Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP)
19.5.12 Diabetic Retinopathy (DR)
19.6 Carotenoids as Translational Medicine
19.6.1 L and Z Role in Visual Function in Healthy Adults
19.6.2 L and Z Role in Visual Function in Age-Related Diseased System
19.6.3 Role in Early Life
19.6.4 Role of Other Carotenoids in Visual Cycle
19.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Carotenoids and Cardiovascular Diseases
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Anti CVD Potential of Carotenoids
20.2.1 Pro-Oxidant and Antioxidant Effect of Carotenoids
20.2.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity
20.2.3 Endothelial Dysfunction
20.2.4 Hypocholesterolemic Activity
20.2.5 Effect on Gap Junction Communication
20.2.6 Effect on Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury
20.3 CVD Promoters
20.3.1 Smoking
20.3.2 Obesity
20.3.3 Gender
20.3.4 Life Style
20.4 Case Studies
20.4.1 Epidemiological Study
20.4.1.1 Animal Study
20.4.1.2 Human Interventions
20.4.2 In Vitro Studies of Carotenoids
20.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Carotenoids and Bone Health
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Bone Composition
21.2.1 Osteoclasts
21.2.2 Osteoblasts
21.2.3 Osteocytes
21.3 Carotenoids and Bone Health
21.3.1 Carotenoids and Osteoporosis
21.3.2 Anti-osteoclastogenic Properties
21.3.3 Anti-fracture Properties
21.4 Individual Carotenoids in Osteoporosis
21.4.1 Fucoxanthin
21.4.2 β-Cryptoxanthin
21.4.3 Lycopene
21.4.4 Lutein and Zeaxanthin
21.4.5 β-carotene
References
Chapter 22: Carotenoids and Periodontal Diseases
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Role of Carotenoids
22.2.1 Lycopene
22.2.2 β -carotene
22.2.3 β-cryptoxanthin
22.2.4 Fucoxanthin
22.2.5 Crocin
22.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Carotenoids and Skin Diseases
23.1 Overview of Skin
23.2 Carotenoids in Human Skin
23.2.1 Types and Distribution of Carotenoids in Skin
23.2.2 Accumulation of Carotenoids in Skin
23.2.3 Determination of Skin Carotenoids
23.2.4 Factors Affecting Carotenoids of Skin
23.2.4.1 Positively Affecting Factors
23.2.4.2 Negatively Affecting Factors
23.3 Functions of Various Carotenoids in Protection of Skin from Diseases
23.4 Diseases of Skin
23.4.1 Diseases Related to Radiation Exposure
23.4.1.1 Photosensitivity
23.4.1.2 Sunburn
23.4.1.3 Photoaging
23.4.1.4 Photoimmune Modulation
23.4.1.5 Photocarcinogenesis
23.4.2 Conditions Related to Skin Color
23.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24: Application of Carotenoids in Cosmetics
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Carotenoids and Photo-Protection
24.3 Xanthophyllic Carotenoids
24.4 Lutein in Cosmetics
24.5 Beta Carotene
24.6 Lycopene
24.7 Astaxanthin
24.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 25: Carotenoids in Women and Infant Health
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Prevention of Pregnancy Complication by Carotenoids
25.2.1 Maternal-Fetal Transfer of Carotenoids
25.2.2 Carotenoid Status in the Newborn
25.2.3 Carotenoids in Breast Milk
25.2.4 Infant Feeding Method and Infant carotenoid Status
25.2.5 Carotenoids and Infant Health and Development
25.2.6 Visual Development
25.2.7 Brain and Cognitive Development
25.2.8 Preterm Infants
25.2.9 Long-Term Studies in Infants and Children
25.2.10 Safety of Carotenoids and the Intake Recommendations for Pregnant Women and Infants
25.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 26: Provitamin A Carotenoids
26.1 Introduction
26.1.1 Leafy Vegetables
26.1.2 Root Crops
26.1.3 Fruits
26.1.4 Squashes and Pumpkins
26.2 Properties of Provitamin A Carotenoids
26.2.1 Size and Shape
26.2.2 Solubility
26.2.3 Light Absorption and Color
26.2.4 Antioxidant Properties
26.3 Classification and Extraction of Provitamin A Carotenoids
26.4 Bioconversion Pathways of Provitamin A Carotenoids
26.5 Mode of Action and Distribution Pattern of Provitamin A Carotenoids
26.6 Physiological Role of Provitamin A Carotenoids in Plants and Animals
26.7 Provitamin A Carotenoids Efficacy in Combating Diseases
26.8 Current and Future Prospects of Provitamin A Carotenoids
26.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 27: Commercialization and Marketing Potential of Carotenoids
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Applications and Market
27.3 Coloring Potential of Carotenoids
27.4 Carotenoid-Based Commercial Products
27.5 Food/Feed Potential
27.6 Functional Foods Potential
27.7 Market Growth Drivers
27.8 Challenges
27.9 Production Methods
27.9.1 Yields
27.9.2 Cost
27.9.3 Choice of Type
27.9.4 Pros and Cons of Both Methods
27.10 Recent Commercial/Corporate Developments
27.11 Overall Scenario
27.12 Active Organizations
27.13 Key Manufacturers/Players
27.14 Carotenoids Type
27.15 Product Type
27.16 Price
27.17 Geographic
27.18 Individual Carotenoids
27.18.1 Beta Carotene
27.18.2 Lycopene
27.18.3 Astaxanthin
27.18.4 Canthaxanthin
27.18.5 Lutein and Zeaxanthin
27.18.6 Microbial Platforms for Carotenoids Production
27.19 Algal Production
27.20 Conclusions
References
Chapter 28: Past, Present and Future of Carotenoids Research
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Two Centuries Research Journey
28.3 Lacunas in Research
28.4 From Food to Tissues
28.4.1 Sources, Bioavailability and Conversion
28.4.2 Variability Between Individuals
28.5 Carotenoids and Major Diseases: Practical Concerns and General Points
28.5.1 Human Studies
28.5.2 Biomarkers
28.5.3 Animal Models
28.5.4 High Dose, Low Dose and Balance
28.5.5 Safety and Toxicity
28.5.6 Natural Versus Synthetic
28.6 How the Effects Might Be Mediated?
28.6.1 Via Antioxidant Action
28.6.2 Via Metabolites
28.6.3 Via the Immune System
28.7 Final Comments: The Big Questions [18]
28.8 Challenges
28.9 Future Directions
28.10 Conclusions
References
Index