Carotenoids: Biosynthetic and Biofunctional Approaches

✍ Scribed by Norihiko Misawa (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 289
• Series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1261
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book provides a comprehensive overview of carotenoid biosynthesis by different organisms, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, arthropods, and plants. Carotenoids are thought to provide health benefits in areas such as cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, NAFLD, NASH, obesity, age-related functional decline, and as a result, they have received an increasing amount of attention.

With contributions from leading experts in biology, biotechnology, and chemistry of carotenoid research, this volume discusses the biological functions of carotenoids such as astaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and fucoxanthin, in addition to paprika carotenoids, capsanthin, and capsorubin. It also reveals the technologies behind the commercial production of some functional carotenoids.

The book is targeted for academic and industrial readers in biology, biotechnology, nutrient physiology and related fields.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface and Introduction
Contents
Part I: Biosynthetic Approach
1: Commercial Production of Astaxanthin from the Green Alga Haematococcus pluvialis
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Functions and Uses of Natural Astaxanthin
1.3 Natural Sources for Astaxanthin
1.4 Life History of H. pluvialis
1.5 Mass Culture of H. pluvialis
1.6 Extraction of Astaxanthin
1.7 Future of H. pluvialis-Derived Astaxanthin
References
2: Commercial Production of Astaxanthin with Paracoccus carotinifaciens
2.1 Introduction
2.2 P. carotinifaciens
2.3 Improvement of Producing Astaxanthin with P. carotinifaciens
2.4 Commercial Production of Astaxanthin with P. carotinifaciens
2.5 Usage Examples of Dehydrated P. carotinifaciens
2.6 Astaxanthin-Rich Carotenoid Extracts (ARE) Derived from P. carotinifaciens
References
3: Production of Carotenoids from Cultivated Seaweed
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cultivation of C. okamuranus Discoid Germlings in Floating Form
3.3 Production of Fucoxanthin and Fucoxanthin Chlorophyll a/c Protein
3.4 Cultivation of Various Brown Algae in Microalgal Forms
3.5 Cultivation of Codium intricatum Trichomes in Floating Form
3.6 Prospects for the Future
References
4: Carotenoid Metabolism in Aquatic Animals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Carotenoids in Porifera
4.3 Carotenoids in Coelenterata
4.4 Carotenoid Metabolism in Mollusca (Mollusks) and Protochordata (Tunicates)
4.4.1 Metabolism of Fucoxanthin in Bivalves and Tunicates
4.4.2 Metabolism of Peridinin in Bivalves and Tunicates
4.4.3 Metabolism of Diatoxanthin and Alloxanthin in Bivalves and Tunicates
4.4.4 Oxidation of Carotenoids in Snail
4.4.5 Reduction of Carotenoids with 4-Oxo-β-End Group to 4-Hydroxy-5,6-Dihydro-β-End Group in Spindle Shells
4.4.6 Oxidative Cleavage of Carbon-Carbon Double Bond at C7′-C8′ in C40 Skeletal Carotenoids to Form 8′-Apocarotenoids
4.4.7 Novel Carotenoid Pyropheophorbide a Esters from Abalone
4.5 Carotenoid Metabolism in Arthropoda (Crustaceans)
4.5.1 Oxidation of β-Carotene to Astaxanthin in Crustaceans
4.5.2 Racemization of Astaxanthin and Reductive Metabolic Pathways of Carotenoids in Prawn
4.5.3 Other Oxidative Metabolic Pathways of Carotenoids in Crustaceans
4.6 Carotenoid Metabolism in Echinodermata (Echinoderms)
4.7 Metabolism of Carotenoids in Fish
4.7.1 Epimerization of Lutein Through 3-Hydroxy-β,ε-Caroten-3′-One and Oxidative Metabolisms of Lutein and Zeaxanthin in Cypri...
4.7.2 Reductive Metabolism Pathway of Astaxanthin in Perciformes and Salmonidae Fish
4.7.3 Hydrogenation of Double Bond at C7-C8 (C7′-C8′) in Catfish Silurus asotus
4.7.4 Oxidation of Hydroxy Groups and Retro Rearrangement of Polyene Chain of Zeaxanthin in Tilapia Tilapia nilotica
4.7.5 Other Unique Structures of Carotenoids in Fish
4.7.6 Formation of Apocarotenoids in Fish
4.7.7 Conversion of Carotenoids to Retinoids in Fish
4.8 Examples of Food Chains and Metabolic Conversion of Carotenoids in Marine Animals
4.9 Metabolic Conversion and Increasing Anti-oxidative Activity of Carotenoids in Aquatic Animals
References
5: Carotenoid Metabolism in Terrestrial Animals
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Mollusca (Snail)
5.3 Arthropoda
5.3.1 Insecta
5.3.1.1 Hemiptera (Aphid, Whitefly, Stink Bug, and Planthopper)
5.3.1.2 Coleoptera (Beetle)
5.3.1.3 Odonata (Dragonfly and Damselfly)
5.3.1.4 Orthoptera (Locust and Mantis)
5.3.1.5 Phasmatodea (Stick Insect)
5.3.1.6 Ephemeroptera (Mayfly)
5.3.1.7 Diptera (Fly)
5.3.1.8 Trichoptera (Caddisfly)
5.3.1.9 Lepidoptera (Butterfly and Moth)
5.3.2 Arachnida (Spider and Spider Mite)
5.4 Amphibia (Frog)
5.5 Reptilia (Snake and Lizard)
5.6 Aves (Bird)
5.6.1 Carotenoid Metabolism in Chicken
5.6.2 Carotenoids in Zebra Finch
5.6.3 Carotenoids in Plumage (Feathers) of Birds
5.6.4 Novel Methoxy Carotenoids in Feathers of Cotinga
5.6.5 Identification of Carotenoid 4-Ketolase Gene in Zebra Finch
5.7 Mammals
References
6: Metabolism of Carotenoids in Mammals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Oxidative Metabolites of Carotenoid in Vertebrates
6.3 Oxidative Metabolism of Fucoxanthin in Mice
6.4 Oxidative Metabolism of Lutein in Mice
6.5 Lutein Oxidation and Its Accumulation in Tissues
6.6 Biological Activity of Keto-Carotenoids
6.7 Cleavage of Carotenoids
6.8 Bioavailability of Carotenoids and Cleavage Enzymes
6.9 Conclusions
References
7: Diversity and Evolution of Carotenoid Biosynthesis from Prokaryotes to Plants
7.1 Carotenoid Pathways in Different Groups of Organisms
7.1.1 Archaea
7.1.2 Bacteria
7.1.3 Algae and Plants
7.1.3.1 Primary Plastid Groups
7.1.3.2 Algae from Secondary Endosymbiosis
7.1.3.3 Plants
7.1.4 Fungi and Animals
7.2 Evolutionary Relatedness and Diversity of Carotenogenic Genes
7.2.1 The Universal Phytoene Synthase
7.2.2 Phytoene Desaturation Diversity
7.2.2.1 The CrtI-Type from Prokaryotes and Fungi
7.2.2.2 The crtP/Pds-Type Desaturases
7.2.2.3 Other Carotenogenic Genes Related to crtI
7.2.3 Multiple Lycopene Cyclases
7.2.3.1 The Archaeal Type CrtYcd
7.2.3.2 CruA/CruP Cyclases in Photosynthetic Prokaryotes
7.2.3.3 CrtY and CrtL from Bacteria
7.2.4 α- and beta-Carotene 3-Hydroxylases
7.3 Evolution of Carotenoid Biosynthesis from Bacteria to Plants
References
8: Engineered Maize Hybrids with Diverse Carotenoid Profiles and Potential Applications in Animal Feeding
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Combinatorial Nuclear Transformation Generates a Diverse Library of Plants with Distinct and Stable Phenotypes
8.3 Reconstruction of the Carotenoid Pathway in White Maize Leads to the Accumulation of Extraordinary Levels of Metabolic Int...
8.4 Reconstruction of the Astaxanthin Biosynthesis Pathway in Maize Endosperm Reveals a Metabolic Bottleneck in the Conversion...
8.5 Synergistic Metabolism in Hybrid Corn Indicates Bottlenecks in the Carotenoid Pathway and Leads to the Accumulation of Ext...
8.6 Combined Transcript, Proteome, and Metabolite Analysis of Transgenic Maize Seeds Engineered for Enhanced Carotenoid Synthe...
8.7 Metabolic Engineering of Ketocarotenoid Biosynthesis in Maize Endosperm and Characterization of a Prototype High Oil Astax...
8.8 Carotenoid-Enriched Transgenic Corn Delivers Bioavailable Carotenoids to Poultry and Protects Them Against Coccidiosis
8.9 High-Carotenoid Corn in Egg Production
8.10 Mice Fed on a Diet Enriched with Genetically Engineered High-Carotenoid Corn Show No Sub-acute Toxic Effects and No Sub-c...
8.11 Engineered Maize as a Source of Astaxanthin: Processing and Application as Fish Feed
References
9: Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Liverworts
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Carotenoid Profile of Liverworts
9.3 Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes of the Liverwort
9.4 The Evolutionary History of the Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes
9.5 Concluding Remarks
References
10: Metabolic Engineering for Carotenoid Production Using Eukaryotic Microalgae and Prokaryotic Cyanobacteria
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Technologies for Metabolic Engineering of Microalgae and Cyanobacteria
10.3 Carotenoid Synthesis Pathways in Microalgae and Cyanobacteria
10.4 Recent Achievements Through Metabolic Engineering
10.4.1 Enzymes in the MEP Pathway
10.4.2 Phytoene Synthase
10.4.3 Phytoene Desaturase
10.4.4 beta-Carotene Hydroxylase and Zeaxanthin Epoxidase
10.4.5 beta-Carotene Ketolase
10.5 Conclusions
References
11: Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, a Versatile Platform for the Production of Carotenoids and Other Acetyl-CoA-Derived Compoun...
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Astaxanthin Biosynthesis and Acetyl-CoA Metabolism in Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous
11.3 Potential of X. dendrorhous as a Cell Factory for the Production of Terpenoids and Poly-unsaturated Fatty Acids
11.4 Tools and Techniques for Genetic Manipulations of X. dendrorhous
11.5 Treatment to Achieve Genetic Stability of the Diploid X. dendrorhous Transformants
11.6 Engineering of Enhanced Astaxanthin Biosynthesis
11.7 Accumulation of Phytoene by Pathway Disruption
11.8 Pathway Extension from β-Carotene to Zeaxanthin.
11.9 Versatility of X. dendrorhous for Combinatorial Biosynthesis of Novel Carotenoid Structures
11.10 Genetic Extension of the Fatty Acid Pathway to the Formation of Arachidonic Acid
11.11 Perspectives
References
12: Carotenoid Production in Oleaginous Yeasts
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Carotenoid-Producing Oleaginous Yeasts (Red Yeasts)
12.3 Genetically Modified Oleaginous Yeasts
12.4 Carotenoid Production by Genetically Modified Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous
12.5 Carotenoid Production by Genetically Engineered Oleaginous Yeast Yarrowia lipolytica
12.6 Carotenoid Production by Genetically Engineered Oleaginous Yeast Lipomyces starkeyi
12.7 For Efficient Carotenoid Production by Oleaginous Yeasts
References
13: Haloarchaea: A Promising Biosource for Carotenoid Production
13.1 Haloarchaea
13.2 Haloarchaea-Based Biotechnology
13.3 Carotenoids from Haloarchaea
13.3.1 Biological Roles
13.3.2 Production
13.4 Conclusions
References
14: Carotenoid Biosynthesis in the Phylum Actinobacteria
References
15: When Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes Met Escherichia coli : The Early Days and These Days
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Early Days When Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes Met Escherichia coli
15.3 Subsequent Rapid Advance
15.4 The Early Days When Astaxanthin Biosynthesis Genes Met Escherichia coli
References
16: Pathway Engineering Using Escherichia coli to Produce Commercialized Carotenoids
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Functional Characterization of Carotenoid Biosynthetic Genes Expressed by Recombinant E. coli
16.3 Overproduction of Carotenoids in Recombinant E. coli
16.4 Modification of Endogenous Pathways
16.5 Introduction of Heterologous MVA Pathway Genes
16.6 Applied Researches and Future Prospects for Using Recombinant E. coli Carotenoid Production Systems
References
17: Carotenoid Production in Escherichia coli: Case of Acyclic Carotenoids
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Bacterial Acyclic Carotenoids
17.2.1 Acyclic C30 Carotenoids Synthesized in E. coli
17.2.2 Acyclic C40 Carotenoids Synthesized in E. coli
17.2.3 Acyclic C50 Carotenoids Synthesized in E. coli
17.3 Plant Acyclic Carotenoids
17.3.1 Acyclic C20 Carotenoids Synthesized in E. coli
References
18: Fecal Microflora from Dragonflies and Its Microorganisms Producing Carotenoids
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Fecal Bacterial Flora of the Two Dragonfly Species
18.3 Carotenoid-Producing Microorganisms Isolated from Excrement of Dragonflies S. frequens and P. flavescens
18.4 Structural Determination of C30 Carotenoids Produced by Fecal Bacteria of Dragonflies
References
19: Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Animals: Case of Arthropods
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Animals (Arthropods) that Can Synthesize Carotenoids De Novo
19.3 Functional Analysis of Aphid Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes
19.4 Postscript
References
Part II: Biofunctional Approach
20: Molecular Mechanisms of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)/Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH)
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Pathogenesis of NAFLD and NASH
20.3 Obesity
20.4 Diabetes to NAFLD
20.5 NAFLD to Diabetes
20.6 Immune Cells in the Development of NASH
20.7 Fibrosis
References
21: Prevention of NAFLD/NASH by Astaxanthin and beta-Cryptoxanthin
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Pharmacological Agents for NASH
21.3 Vitamin E
21.4 Astaxanthin
21.5 beta-Cryptoxanthin
References
22: Therapeutic Potential of Astaxanthin in Diabetic Kidney Disease
22.1 Introduction
22.2 What Is Astaxanthin?
22.3 Prevention of Diabetic Nephropathy by Astaxanthin
22.4 Effects of Astaxanthin on Gene Expression Profile in Diabetic Glomerular Cells
22.5 Effects of Astaxanthin on Hyperglycemia-Induced Oxidative Signaling in Cultured Glomerular Cells
22.6 Effects of Astaxanthin on Lipid Metabolism
22.7 Conclusion
References
23: Extensive Bioactivity of Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis in Human
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Suspected Basis of Astaxanthin´s Bioactivity
23.2.1 Powerful Antioxidant Activity
23.2.2 Safe Antioxidant Activity
23.2.3 Superior Position in the Cell Membrane
23.3 Extensive Health Promotion Effects of the Natural Astaxanthin
23.3.1 Relief of Eye Fatigue
23.3.2 Skin Aging Defense (Anti-photoaging)
23.3.3 Muscle Resilience (Enhancement of Sports Performance)
23.4 Practical Medical Applications of Natural Astaxanthin
23.5 Conclusion
References
24: β-Cryptoxanthin from Satsuma Mandarin and Its Multiple Functions
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Multiple Functionality of β-Cryptoxanthin
24.3 Body Fat Reduction
24.3.1 Differential Lipocyte Inhibition
24.3.2 Mechanism of Visceral Lipid Reduction
24.3.3 Human Interventional Trials on Body Fat Reduction
24.4 Whitening/Cosmetic Effect
24.4.1 Melanin Synthesis Inhibitory Action
24.4.2 Pigmentation Inhibition
24.4.3 Human Interventional Trial on Whitening
24.4.4 Bone Quality Improvement
24.5 β-Cryptoxanthin Acts as a Vitamin A Compound
24.6 Conclusion
References
25: Health-Promoting Functions of the Marine Carotenoid Fucoxanthin
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Fucoxanthin
25.3 Anti-obesity Effect of Fucoxanthin
25.3.1 Suppression of Body and Adipose Tissue Weight Gain
25.3.2 Regulation of Adipocyte Differentiation (Fig. 25.3)
25.3.3 Control of Adipokine Production and Inflammation in White Adipose Tissue (Fig. 25.3)
25.3.4 Uncoupling Protein 1 Induction (Fig. 25.5)
25.4 Anti-diabetic Effect of Fucoxanthin
25.4.1 Improvement of Blood Glucose and Insulin Levels
25.4.2 Regulation of Insulin Signaling Pathways (Fig. 25.6)
25.5 Safety of Fucoxanthin
25.6 Conclusions
References
26: Biological Activities of Paprika Carotenoids, Capsanthin and Capsorubin
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Antioxidative Activities of Paprika Carotenoids
26.3 Anti-obesity Effects of Paprika Carotenoids
26.4 Accumulation of Paprika Carotenoids in Human Blood
26.5 Endurance Exercise Performance Improvement Effects of Paprika Carotenoids
References