Blockchain for Cyberphysical Systems
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Part I
1
Introduction to Cyber-Physical Systems
1.1 Introduction
1.2 CPS Application Opportunities
1.2.1 Smart Cities
1.2.2 Smart Grids
1.2.3 Supply Chains
1.3 CPS Challenges
1.3.1 Centralization
1.3.2 Security
1.3.3 Privacy
1.3.4 Heterogeneity in Device Resources
1.3.5 Lack of Control or Auditability over Data
1.3.6 Persistence/Sustainability
1.3.7 Trust
1.4 Conclusion
References
2
Distributed Solutions for CPS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Distributed Processing in CPS
2.2.1 Embedded Processing
2.2.2 Embedded Learning
2.3 Distributed Communication in CPS
2.3.1 Security and Privacy in CPS
2.3.2 Trust and Reputation Systems for CPS
2.4 Distributed Storage in CPS
2.5 Distributed Energy Management in CPS
2.6 Limitations and Open Questions
2.7 Conclusions
References
3
Blockchain for CPS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Blockchain
3.2.1 Blockchain Structure
3.2.2 Storing New Blocks
3.2.3 Consensus Algorithms
3.3 A Review on the Existing Blockchain-Based Frameworks for CPS
3.3.1 Ethereum
3.3.2 Hyperledger
3.3.3 IoTA
3.3.4 Corda
3.4 An Example Scenario
3.5 Challenges in Adopting Blockchain in CPS
3.5.1 Scalability
3.5.2 Delay
3.5.3 Computational Resource Consumption
3.5.4 Memory Overhead
3.5.5 Throughput
3.5.6 Privacy
3.5.7 Reliance on Trusted Third Parties (TTPs)
3.6 Conclusions
References
Part II
4
Lightweight Scalable Blockchains
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Towards Lightweight Blockchain for CPS
4.2.1 Hierarchical Approaches
4.2.2 Optimized Consensus Algorithms
4.2.3 Partial Centralization
4.2.4 Summarization
4.2.5 Chain Management
4.2.6 Toward New Blockchain Instantiations
4.3 LSB for CPS
4.3.1 Overview
4.3.2 Overlay Formation
4.3.3 Blockchain Structure
4.3.4 Storing Blocks
4.3.5 Verifying Transactions
4.3.6 Managing Load
4.3.7 Transaction Flow
4.4 Comparative Evaluation
4.5 Conclusion
References
5
Memory-Optimized Blockchains
5.1 Introduction
5.2 State-of-the-Art Memory-Optimized Solutions
5.2.1 Off-Chain Storage
5.2.2 Removing Off-Chain Data
5.2.3 Data Modification
5.2.4 Optimizing Transactions
5.3 A Memory-Optimized and Flexible Blockchain (MOF-BC)
5.3.1 Transaction Removal
5.3.2 Memory Optimization
5.3.4 Batch Removal of Transactions
5.4 Comparative Evaluation
5.5 Summary
References
6
Managing Data Trust in Blockchain
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Trust in CPS Applications
6.2.1 Trusting the Data (Data-Centric)
6.2.2 Trusting the Network Participants (Entity-Centric)
6.3 Existing Trust Management Approaches
6.4 A Multilayered Trust Management Framework
6.4.1 Two-Tiered Network Model for CPS Applications
6.4.2 End-to-End Trust Management Framework
6.4.3 Lightweight Blockchain Architecture
6.4.4 Case Study
6.5 Security Analysis of the End-to-End Trust Framework
6.6 Conclusions
References
7
User Anonymity in Blockchain
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Threats Against User Anonymity
7.2.1 Active Interaction
7.2.2 Analyzing Network Traffic
7.2.3 Analyzing Transactions
7.2.4 Analyzing Off-the-Chain Information
7.3 Protecting the User Anonymity
7.3.1 Mixing Services
7.3.2 Cryptographical Methods
7.4 Key Management
7.5 Anonymity in CPS
7.5.1 Overview
7.5.2 Attack Model
7.5.3 Protecting User Anonymity
7.5.4 Experimental Results
7.6 Conclusions
References
Part III
8
Blockchain Applications in Smart Grids
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Blockchain for Energy Trading
8.3 Blockchain for Data Management in Smart Grids
8.4 Blockchain for Demand-Side Management
8.5 Blockchain for Emission Credit Trading
8.6 Conclusions
References
9
Blockchain Applications in Smart Vehicles
9.1 Introduction
9.2 State-of-the-Art Solutions
9.2.1 Automotive Network Security
9.2.2 Trust and Reputation Management
9.2.3 Privacy
9.2.4 Vehicular Forensics
9.3 Toward New Blockchain Security Solution for Smart Vehicles
9.3.1 Security Objective
9.3.2 Blockchain-Enabled Countermeasure for Smart Vehicles
9.3.3 Use Case
9.4 Summary and Conclusion
References
10
Blockchain Applications in the Supply Chain
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Blockchain Requirements for SCM
10.2.1 Blockchain Type
10.2.2 Participants and Roles
10.2.3 Application Stage
10.2.4 Type of Data
10.3 State of the Art in Blockchain-Based SCM
10.3.1 Blockchain Platforms for SCM
10.3.2 Blockchain as a Tool
10.3.3 Traceability Frameworks
10.3.4 Data Source Reliability
10.4 Trustworthy Traceability in Supply Chains
10.4.1 Blockchain Architecture
10.4.2 Transaction Vocabulary
10.4.3 Traceability Module
10.4.4 Trust Management Module
10.4.5 Application Product Queries, Penalties, and Rewards
10.4.6 Case Study
10.5 Critical Analysis
10.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
11
Blockchain Applications in IoT Data Marketplace
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Towards Blockchain-Based Data Marketplaces
11.2.1 Trade Transaction Management
11.2.2 Distributed Data Catalogs
11.2.3 Hybrid Centralized-Decentralized Architectures
11.2.4 Decentralized Data Storage and Access Mechanisms
11.2.5 Agreement Instantiation
11.3 The AIDM Framework Using Smart Contracts
11.3.1 Motivating Use Case
11.3.2 Overview
11.3.3 Main Components
11.3.4 Optimization-Based Selection and Allocation
11.3.5 Marketplace Components Using Smart Contracts
11.4 Critical Analysis
11.5 Conclusions
References
12
Open Research Questions and Future Directions
12.1 Concluding Remarks
12.2 The Road Ahead
References
About the Authors
Index