Bioplastics for Sustainable Development

✍ Scribed by Mohammed Kuddus (editor), Roohi (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 733
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book provides the latest information on bioplastics and biodegradable plastics. The initial chapters introduce readers to the various sources and substrates for the synthesis of bioplastics and biodegradable plastics, and explain their general structure, physio-chemical properties and classification.
In turn, the book discusses innovative methods for the production of bioplastics at the industrial level and for the microbial production of bioplastics. It highlights the processes that are involved in the conversion of agro-industrial waste into bioplastics, while also summarizing the mechanisms of biodegradation in bioplastics.
The book addresses a range of biotechnological applications of bioplastics such as in agriculture, food packaging and pharmaceutical industry, as well as biomedical applications.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1: Microbial Production of Bioplastics: Current Trends and Future Perspectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Biosynthesis of Microbial Bioplastics
1.2.1 In Vitro Synthesis of Microbial Bioplastic Granules
1.2.2 In Vivo Synthesis of Microbial Bioplastic Granules
1.2.3 Morphology of Microbial Bioplastic Granule
1.3 Mechanism and Enzymes Involved in the Synthesis of Microbial Bioplastic
1.4 Chemical Structure and Classification of Microbial Plastic
1.5 Microorganisms Producing PHA and Its Co-polymers
1.6 Major Drawbacks of Microbial Bioplastic Production
1.7 Sustainable and Cost-Free Substrates for Microbial Bioplastic Production
1.7.1 Dairy Wastes Used for PHA Production
1.7.2 Agro-Industrial Wastes Used for PHA Production
1.7.3 Lignocellulosic Wastes Used for PHA Production
1.7.4 Waste from Frying Oils and Animal Fats for PHA Production
1.7.5 Plastics Wastes for PHA Production
1.8 Cost-Effective Microbial Bioplastic Production Involving Extremophiles
1.9 Innovative Research on Microbial Bioplastics
1.9.1 PHA Nanocomposites
1.9.2 PHA-Polymer Hybrids
1.9.3 PHA Nanoparticles
1.10 Applications of Advanced Microbial Bioplastics
1.10.1 PHA Nanocomposites for Scaffolds, Tissue Engineering, and Nanocoatings
1.10.2 PHA Nanocarriers for Cancer Therapy and Drug Delivery
1.10.3 PHA Nanocomposites as Smart and Active Packaging Material
1.11 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
2: General Structure and Classification of Bioplastics and Biodegradable Plastics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Bioplastics
2.3 Sources of Bioplastic
2.3.1 Plants as a Source of Bioplastics
2.3.2 Bacteria as a Source of Bioplastic
2.3.3 Algal Sources
2.4 Classification of Bioplastics
2.4.1 Bioplastic from Biomass Products
2.4.1.1 Bioplastic-Based on Polysaccharide
2.4.1.2 Bioplastic Obtained from Starch
Bioplastic from the Modified Form of Starch
2.4.1.3 Bioplastic Obtained from Cellulose
2.4.1.4 Bioplastic Obtained from Pectin
2.4.1.5 Bioplastic Obtained from Chitin and Chitosan
2.4.2 Bioplastic Obtained from Proteins
2.4.2.1 Bioplastic from Wheat Gluten Protein
2.4.2.2 Bioplastic from Cottonseed Protein
2.5 Bioplastics from Microorganisms
2.5.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
2.5.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
2.6 Bioplastics Obtained from Biotechnological Inventions
2.6.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
2.6.2 Polyethylene
2.7 Bioplastics Obtained Chemically
2.7.1 Polycaprolactones
2.7.2 Polyamides
2.7.2.1 Polyamide (PA11)
2.8 Role of Petrochemical Products in the Synthesis of Bioplastics
2.9 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
3: Innovative Technologies Adopted for the Production of Bioplastics at Industrial Level
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition of Biopolymers and Bioplastics
3.3 Recent Developments in the Bioplastic Industry
3.4 PHA Production
3.5 Manufacturing Methods of Bioplastics
3.6 Traditional Technologies for the Manufacturing of Bioplastics
3.6.1 Injection Molding
3.6.2 Compression Molding
3.7 Innovative Technologies for the Production of PHA
3.7.1 Waste Utilization/Valorization
3.7.2 Engineered Microorganism and PHAome
3.7.3 Recycling and Symbiotic Technologies
3.8 Conclusions
References
4: Processing of Commercially Available Bioplastics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Processing of Commercial Bioplastics
4.2.1 Injection Molding Technology
4.2.2 Extrusion Technology
4.2.3 Thermoforming Technology
4.2.4 3D Printing Technology
4.2.5 Electrospinning Process
4.2.6 Casting Method
4.2.7 Coating Method
4.3 Recyclability of Bioplastics
4.4 Conclusion
References
5: Protein-Based Bioplastics from Biowastes: Sources, Processing, Properties and Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Protein Sources
5.2.1 Plant Proteins
5.2.1.1 Soy Protein
5.2.1.2 Wheat Protein
5.2.1.3 Corn Protein
5.2.1.4 Animal Proteins
Keratin
Milk Proteins
Egg Albumin
Blood
Collagen and Gelatine
5.2.2 Processing of Protein-Based Bioplastics
5.2.2.1 Wet Techniques
Casting
Electrospinning
5.2.2.2 Dry Techniques
Compression Moulding
Injection Moulding
Extrusion
3D Printing
5.2.3 Characterisation of Protein-Based Bioplastics
5.2.3.1 Mechanical Properties
Rheological Tests
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
Continuous Deformation Tests
Tensile Strength Tests
5.2.3.2 Thermal Properties
DSC
TGA
DMTA
5.2.3.3 Morphological Properties
5.2.3.4 Optical Properties
5.2.3.5 Other Features Required for Protein-Based Bioplastics
5.2.4 Applications and Trends
5.2.4.1 Current Applications
5.2.4.2 Future Trends
References
6: Conversion of Agro-industrial Wastes for the Manufacture of Bio-based Plastics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Pre-treatment of Lignocellulose
6.2.1 Physical Pre-treatment
6.2.1.1 Types
6.2.1.2 Conversion of Physically Pre-treated Agro-wastes to PHA
6.2.2 Chemical and Physico-chemical Pre-treatment
6.2.2.1 Types of Chemical and Physico-chemical Pre-treatments
6.2.2.2 Conversion of Chemically Pre-treated Agro-wastes to PHA
6.2.3 Biological Pre-treatment
6.2.3.1 Types of Biological Pre-treatment
6.2.3.2 Conversion of Biologically Pre-treated Agro-wastes to PHA
6.2.4 Genetic Adjustment
6.2.4.1 Strategies for Genetic Adjustment of Lignin
6.2.4.2 Targets for Genetic Adjustment
6.3 Direct Conversion of Lignocellulosic Agro-waste to PHA
6.4 Conclusion
References
7: Fruit Waste as Sustainable Resources for Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Bioplastics
7.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
7.3.1 Chemical Structure of PHA
7.3.2 Enzymatic Synthesis of PHA
7.3.3 Biosynthetic Pathways for PHA Production
7.3.3.1 PHA Biosynthetic Pathway I
7.3.3.2 PHA Biosynthetic Pathway II
7.3.3.3 PHA Biosynthetic Pathway III
7.3.3.4 PHA Biosynthetic Pathway IV
7.3.4 Properties of PHAs
7.3.4.1 Physical Properties
7.3.4.2 Chemical Properties
7.3.4.3 Mechanical Properties
7.3.4.4 Biological Properties
7.3.5 Applications of PHA
7.3.5.1 Applications of PHA in the Medical and Pharmaceutical Fields
7.3.5.2 Industrial Applications
7.3.5.3 Agricultural Applications
7.3.5.4 Other Applications
7.4 Fermentative Strategies for PHA Production from Fruit Waste
7.5 Extraction of PHA
7.5.1 Solvent Extraction
7.5.2 Extraction by Digestion
7.5.2.1 Chemical Digestion
7.5.2.2 Enzymatic Digestion
7.5.2.3 Mechanical Disruptions
7.5.2.4 Other Digestion/Disruption Techniques
7.6 Characterization Methods
7.6.1 Crotonic Acid Method
7.6.2 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
7.6.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis
7.6.4 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis
7.6.5 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
7.6.6 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Analysis
7.6.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
7.7 Challenges in Commercialization and Future Prospects
7.8 Conclusion
References
8: Bio-plastic Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): Applications in Modern Medicine
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Synthesis of PHA
8.3 Types of PHA
8.4 Properties of PHA
8.4.1 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility
8.5 Applications in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
8.5.1 Orthopedic
8.5.2 Cardiovascular
8.5.3 Nerve
8.5.4 Drug Delivery
8.5.5 Wound Management
8.5.6 Medical Devices
8.5.7 Industrial
8.6 Future Prospect
8.7 Conclusion
References
9: Bacterial Production of Poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB): Converting Starch into Bioplastics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Overview of Starch as a Substrate for PHB Production
9.3 Poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB)-Producing Microbes
9.4 PHB Detection
9.5 Downstream Processing of PHB (Recovery and Purification)
9.6 Metabolism of Poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB)
9.6.1 Synthesis of PHB
9.6.2 Degradation of PHB
9.7 Fermentation Process
9.8 Characteristics of PHB
9.9 Applications of Bioplastic PHB
References
10: Halophilic Microorganisms as Potential Producers of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Halophilic Microorganisms
10.2.1 Habitat and Physiological Adaptation of Halophiles
10.2.2 Diversity of Halophiles Accumulating PHA
10.3 PHA Production by Halophilic Microorganisms
10.3.1 PHA Production by Halophilic Bacteria
10.3.2 PHA Production by Archaea
10.4 Fermentation Strategy for PHA Production: A Case Study of Halomonas sp.
10.4.1 Optimization of Growth Medium
10.4.2 Bioreactor-Scale Operation
10.4.3 Downstream Processes for Effective PHA Recovery
10.4.4 Metabolic Engineering of Halophiles for PHA Production
10.5 Applications of PHA
10.6 Conclusion
References
11: Aliphatic Biopolymers as a Sustainable Green Alternative to Traditional Petrochemical-Based Plastics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
11.2.1 Chemical Nature of PHA
11.2.2 Biosynthesis of PHA
11.2.3 Applications
11.3 Polylactides
11.3.1 Chemical Nature
11.3.2 Physical Nature
11.3.3 Synthesis of Polylactides
11.3.4 Applications
11.4 Copolymerization of Polyhydroxyalkanoate and Polylactide Copolymers
11.5 Biodegradation of PHA, PLA, and PHA-PLA Copolymers
11.6 Future Perspectives
References
12: Bioplastic: Food and Nutrition
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Food and Nutrition
12.1.2 Deteriorating World Resources Due to Plastic Pollution
12.2 Bioplastics
12.3 Biopolymer
12.4 Types of Biopolymers and Their Uses
12.4.1 Edible and Non-hazardous
12.4.1.1 Natural Polymer
Protein-Based
Composition
Types of Protein-Based Polymers
Whey Protein
Uses of WheyUses of Whey
Collagen
Uses of CollagenUses of Collagen
Gelatine
Uses of GelatineUses of Gelatine
Soy Protein
Uses of Soy ProteinUses of Soy Protein
Polysaccharide-Based Edible Films and Coatings
Cellulose
Uses of CelluloseUses of Cellulose
Starch
Uses of StarchUses of Starch
Alginate
Uses of AlginateUses of Alginate
Carrageenan
Uses of CarrageenanUses of Carrageenan
Agar
Uses of AgarUses of Agar
Pectin
Uses of PectinUses of Pectin
12.4.2 Non-edible and Non-hazardous
12.4.2.1 Biochemosynthetic Polymer
Polylactic Acid (PLA)
Use of PLA
12.4.2.2 Biosynthetic Polymer
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
Use of PHA
12.5 Conclusion
References
13: Biocomposites of Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Lignocellulosic Components: A Focus on Biodegradation and 3D Printing
13.1 Overview of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
13.2 Lignocellulosic Waste as a Substrate to Produce Polyhydroxyalkanoates
13.3 Wood/PHA Biocomposites and 3D Printing: Defining a Case Study
13.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Filaments
13.3.2 Water Absorption of Biocomposites
13.3.3 Thermal Stability and Decomposition Temperature of Biocomposites
13.3.4 3D Printing
13.3.5 Analysis of Biodegradation in Soil
13.4 Conclusion
References
14: Bio-Based Bioplastics in Active Food Packaging
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biologically Derived Biodegradable Plastics
14.2.1 Poly(Lactic Acid)
14.2.1.1 Structure and Obtaining Methods
14.2.1.2 Properties and Limitations
14.2.2 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates)
14.2.2.1 Structure of PHAs
14.2.2.2 Properties and Limitations
14.2.3 Cellulose and Derivatives
14.2.3.1 Cellophane Films
14.2.3.2 Cellulose Acetate (CA)
14.2.3.3 Carboxymethyl Cellulose
14.2.3.4 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
14.2.4 Thermoplastic Starch (TPS)
14.2.4.1 Properties and Limitations of TPS
14.2.5 End-of-Life Options of Bio-Based Biodegradable Plastics
14.2.5.1 Biodegradability of PLA and PHAs
14.2.5.2 Biodegradation of Cellulose-Based Materials
14.2.5.3 Biodegradation of TPS-Based Materials
14.2.6 Applications of Bio-Derived Biodegradable Plastics in Active Food Packaging
14.2.6.1 PLA- and PHA-Based Active Packaging Materials
14.2.6.2 Celullose Derivatives in Active Food Packaging Materials
14.2.6.3 Active Food Packaging Containing TPS
14.3 Bio-Derived Non-biodegradable Plastics
14.3.1 Bio-Based Poly(ethylene)
14.3.2 Bio-Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate)
14.3.3 Bio-Polyamides
14.3.4 Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate)
14.3.5 Bio-Derived Non-degradable Plastic Materials in Active Food Packaging
14.4 Conclusion
References
15: Synthetic Bioplastics in Active Food Packaging
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Types of Fossil-Based Biodegradable Polymers
15.2.1 Poly(Caprolactone)
15.2.1.1 Properties and Limitations
15.2.2 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)
15.2.2.1 Properties and Limitations
15.2.2.2 Processability and Compatibility
15.2.3 Poly(Butylene Adipate-Co-Terephthalate)
15.2.3.1 Properties and Limitations
15.2.3.2 Processability and Compatibility
15.3 End of Life Options of Synthetic Bioplastics
15.3.1 Biodegradation of PCL-Based Materials
15.3.2 Biodegradation of PVA-Based Materials
15.3.3 Biodegradation of PBAT-Based Materials
15.4 Active Food Packaging Applications of Synthetic Biodegradable Plastics
15.4.1 Poly(Caprolactone)-Based Food Packaging Materials
15.4.2 PVA-Based Food Packaging Materials
15.4.3 PBAT-Based Food Packaging Materials
15.5 Conclusion
References
16: Bioplastic Matrices for Sustainable Agricultural and Horticultural Applications
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Bioplastic Matrices in Agricultural and Horticultural Applications
16.2.1 Bioplastic Matrices as a Supplementary Water Source
16.2.2 Bioplastic Matrices as Devices for the Controlled Release of Fertilizers
16.2.3 Other Applications
16.3 Fabrication of Bioplastic Matrices
16.3.1 Raw Materials
16.3.2 Processing Methods
16.3.2.1 Compression Molding
16.3.2.2 Extrusion
16.3.2.3 Injection Molding
16.3.2.4 Additional Processing Treatments
16.4 Characterization of the Properties of Bioplastic Matrices
16.4.1 Microstructural and Mechanical Properties
16.4.2 Biodegradation
16.4.3 Water Uptake Capacity
16.4.4 Controlled Release of Fertilizers
16.4.5 Plant Analyses
16.5 Conclusion
16.6 Future Perspectives
References
17: Altering the Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic Nature of Bioplastic Surfaces for Biomedical Applications
17.1 Biopolymers
17.2 Classification of Biopolymers
17.2.1 Hydrophilic Polymers
17.2.2 Hydrophobic Biopolymers with Their Hydrophilic Potential
17.2.2.1 Chitin
17.2.2.2 Chitosan
17.2.2.3 Silk Fibroin
17.2.2.4 Poly(Caprolactone)
17.2.2.5 Shellac
17.2.2.6 Poly(Lactic Acid)
17.2.2.7 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
17.3 Surface Modification of Biopolymers
17.3.1 UV Irradiation
17.3.2 Photo-Oxidation
17.3.3 Corona Treatment
17.3.4 Alkaline Treatment
17.3.5 Aminolysis
17.3.6 Graft Polymerization
17.3.7 Plasma Treatment
17.3.8 Enzymatic Treatment
17.4 Applications of Biopolymers
17.4.1 Protein Attachment
17.4.2 Drug Conjugation
17.4.3 Cell Adhesion and Proliferation
17.4.4 Tissue Engineering
17.4.5 Miscellaneous Applications
17.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
18: Multicomponent Polymer Systems Based on Agro-Industrial Waste
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Manufacture of the Polymer Composites Based on Agro-Industrial Waste
18.3 Synthetic Polymer Matrices
18.3.1 Thermoplastic Matrices for Composites with Agro-Industrial Waste Reinforcement
18.3.1.1 General Considerations
18.3.1.2 Thermoplastic Matrices for Composites with Agro-Industrial Waste
18.3.2 Thermoset Polymer Matrix Biocomposites
18.3.2.1 Epoxy Resin-Based Biocomposites
18.3.2.2 Polyurethane-Based Biocomposites
18.3.2.3 Amino Resin-Based Biocomposites
18.4 Multicomponent Polymer Systems Comprising Biopolymers from Renewable Resources and Agro-Industrial Waste
18.4.1 Starch
18.4.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
18.4.3 Lignin
18.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
19: Polysaccharide-Based Materials as Promising Alternatives to Synthetic-Based Plastics for Food Packaging Applications
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Polysaccharides for Preparation of Bio-Based Materials with Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties
19.2.1 Chitosan
19.2.2 Alginate
19.2.3 Xanthan
19.2.4 Dextran
19.2.5 Pullulan
19.3 Properties of Bio-Based Materials Embedding Natural Antioxidant Agents
19.3.1 Water Barrier Properties
19.3.2 Mechanical Properties
19.3.3 Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties
19.4 Applications of Bio-Based Materials Embedding Natural Antioxidant Agents
19.5 Conclusions
References
20: An Overview on Feasible Production of Bioplastic Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) in Transgenic Plants
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Biosynthesis Pathway of PHA in Bacteria
20.3 Subcellular Compartmentalization of PHA in Transgenic Plants
20.3.1 Production of PHA by Transgenic Plants
20.3.1.1 Arabidopsis thaliana
20.3.1.2 Elaeis guineensis and Elaeis oleifera
20.3.1.3 Linum usitatissimum
20.3.1.4 Nicotiana tabacum
20.3.1.5 Saccharum officinarum
20.3.1.6 Other Plants
20.4 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
References
21: Engineering Strategies for Efficient and Sustainable Production of Medium-Chain Length Polyhydroxyalkanoates in Pseudomona...
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
21.3 Medium-Chain Length Polyhydroxyalkanoates
21.3.1 PHA Synthases
21.3.2 PHA Depolymerase
21.3.3 PhaD Regulatory Protein
21.3.4 Phasins
21.4 Biosynthetic Pathways for Monomer Synthesis
21.4.1 beta-Oxidation-Derived Monomers for mcl-PHAs
21.4.2 De Novo Fatty Acid Biosynthesis as Source of Monomers
21.5 Regulatory Circuits Involved in PHA Synthesis
21.5.1 Transcriptional Regulation by RNA Polymerase Specificity
21.5.2 Co-Regulation of Central Pathways and PHA Metabolism
21.5.3 Regulation Mediated by Stringent Response
21.5.4 Quorum Sensing Related Regulation
21.5.5 Regulation of PHA Content at Translational Level
21.5.5.1 Catabolite Repression Control
21.5.5.2 Phosphoenolpyruvate: Carbohydrate-Phosphotransferase System
21.6 Drawbacks for Industrial Production of PHAs
21.6.1 Use of Inexpensive Carbon Sources
21.6.2 Selection of the Optimal Strains
21.6.3 Downstream Processing of PHA
21.7 Conclusion
References
22: Application of Bioplastics in Agro-Based Industries and Bioremediation
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Classification of Bioplastics
22.2.1 Types of Bioplastics According to Jabeen et al. (2015)
22.2.1.1 Microbe-Based Bioplastics
Starch-Based Bioplastics
22.2.1.2 Chemically Synthesized Bioplastics
22.2.2 Categories of Bioplastics According to Musiol et al. (2016)
22.2.2.1 Nonbiodegradable Bioplastics Derived from Renewable Resources
Bio-Polyethylene (PE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
22.2.2.2 Biodegradable Bioplastics Derived from Nonrenewable Resources
Polybutylene Adipate-Co-Terephthalate (PBTA)
Polybutylene Succinate (PBS)
Poly-e-Caprolactone (PCL)
22.2.2.3 Biodegradable Bioplastics Derived from Renewable Resources
Polylactide (PLA)
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
Bioplastics Based on Polysaccharides
Starch in Granular Form
Gelatinized Starch
Thermoplastic Starch (TPS)
Modified Starch
22.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioplastics
22.3.1 Advantages
22.3.2 Disadvantages of Bioplastics
22.4 Processing of Biopolymers
22.4.1 Production of Bio-Based Polymers from Renewable Wastes and Agro-Wastes
22.4.1.1 Thermoplastic Starch-Based Polymers
22.4.1.2 Production of Polylactic Acid (PLA) from Agro-Wastes
Polymerization
Fermentation
22.4.1.3 Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) from Agro-Wastes
22.5 Challenges in the Production of Bioplastic Polymers
22.5.1 Cost
22.5.2 Threat to the Environment
22.5.3 Misconception
22.6 Applications of Bioplastics
22.6.1 Application in Automobile
22.6.2 Application in Agro-Textile
22.6.3 Application in Mulching Films
22.6.4 Application in Food Packaging
22.7 Bioremediation
22.7.1 In Situ Bioremediation
22.7.1.1 Bio-Venting
22.7.1.2 Bio-Augmentation
22.7.1.3 Bio-Sparing
22.7.2 Ex Situ Bioremediation
22.7.2.1 Slurry Phase Bioremediation
22.7.2.2 Solid Phase Bioremediation
22.7.2.3 Composting
22.7.2.4 Land Farming
22.7.2.5 Soil Biopiles
22.7.3 Enzymes Used in Bioremediation
22.7.4 Role of Bioplastics in Bioremediation
22.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
23: Challenges of Bioplastics as Bioinks for 3D and 4D Bioprinting of Human Tissue-Engineered Structures
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Human Cells
23.2.1 Endoderm
23.2.2 Ectoderm
23.2.3 Mesoderm
23.3 Tissue Engineering
23.4 The Bioprinting
23.4.1 The 3D Bioprinting
23.4.2 The 4D Bioprinting
23.5 The Bioprinters
23.5.1 Extrusion Bioprinters
23.5.2 Light-Based Bioprinters
23.6 Bioplastics
23.7 Hydrogel
23.8 Bioinks
23.8.1 The Structural Bioinks (StB)
23.8.2 The Sacrificial Bioinks (SaB)
23.8.3 The Functional Bioinks (FBs)
23.8.4 The Supportive Bioinks (SuB)
23.9 Bioprinting for Specific Human Tissue
23.9.1 Myocardial Bioprinting
23.9.2 Auricular Cartilage Tissue Engineering
23.9.3 Articular Cartilage of the Knee Joint
23.9.4 Liver-Mimetic Honeycomb
23.9.5 Bone Health and Regeneration
23.9.6 Osteochondral Tissue
23.9.7 Human Neuroblastoma
23.9.8 Cancer Tumour
23.9.9 Fat Grafting
23.10 Computed Tomography (CT) Scan and Hounsfield Unit (HU)
23.11 Conclusion
References