Biojet Fuel: Current Technology and Future Prospect

✍ Scribed by Arindam Kuila (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2024
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 309
• Series: Clean Energy Production Technologies
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book covers the basic knowledge of biojet fuel, explores the current technological status, and presents future prospects for commercial biojet fuel production. The focus of this book is on biojet fuel production from different types of potential substrates. It also includes technoeconomic analysis and life cycle assessment of biojet fuel. Biojet fuel is currently recognized as the best alternative to petroleum-based jet fuel due to its renewability and sustainable features. However, there is a scarcity of reports on biojet fuel production from various types of substrates.

The aviation industry globally consumes approximately 200 million tonnes of jet fuels each year, with a projected continuous growth rate of 5% per year until 2050 (Seymour et al., 2020). Currently, the global demand for jet fuel is predominantly met by petroleum-based fuels. However, the limited availability of fossil fuels and increasing concerns about climate change have placed significant pressure on commercial airlines to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and embrace cleaner and more sustainable practices.

Biojet fuel has emerged as the most favorable alternative to petroleum-based jet fuel due to its renewable nature and sustainable characteristics. Despite its potential, there is a limited number of reports available on the production of biojet fuel from different types of substrates. The present scenario of biojet fuel necessitates the development of improved and cost-effective technologies that can yield long-term benefits.

The book is useful for students and researchers in various branches of life sciences, including environmental biotechnology, bioprocess engineering, renewable energy, chemical engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, microbiology, and more.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
Editor and Contributors
About the Editor
Contributors
Chapter 1: General Background and Introduction of Biojet Fuel
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Developments and Genesis of Biojet Fuel
1.3 Feedstock Selection
1.4 Conversion Technologies
1.4.1 Conversion Process of Oil Feedstock
1.4.2 Conversion Process of Sugar Feedstock
1.4.3 Conversion Process of Alcohol Feedstock
1.4.4 Conversion Process of Lignocellulosic Biomass
1.5 Limitations and Future Prospects
1.6 Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Chapter 2: Overview of Aviation Sector, Feedstock, and Supply Chain
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Aviation Industry Growth
2.1.2 Biofuels That Are Sustainable for Aviation
2.1.3 Bio-Aviation Fuel
2.2 Feedstocks for Biomass-Derived
2.2.1 Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene
2.2.2 Renewable Feedstocks
2.3 Technologies for Biojet Fuel Processing
2.3.1 Hydroprocessed Ester and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
2.3.2 Synthetic Bio-Kerosene Process
2.3.3 Alcohol Oligomerization Process
2.3.4 Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbons (DSHC)
2.3.4.1 Mevalonate Pathway
2.3.5 Hydroprocessing Bio-Oil to Produce Biojet Fuel
2.4 Feedstock Storage and Transportation, as well as Bio-Aviation Fuel
2.5 Economic and Environmental Analyses
2.6 Issues Restricting the Use of Biojet Fuels Worldwide
2.6.1 High Production Costs
2.6.2 Technology and Plant Capacity
2.6.3 Absence of Policy Motivation
2.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Production of Biojet Fuel
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Oil-to-Jet
3.2.1 Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids
3.2.2 Catalytic Hydrothermolysis
3.2.3 Hydroprocessed Depolymerized Cellulosic Jet (HDCJ)
3.2.4 Hydroprocessed Hydrocarbons, Esters, and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK or HC-HEFA-SPK)
3.3 Alcohol-to-Jet
3.3.1 Ethanol-to-Jet
3.3.2 Butyl Alcohols-to-Jet
3.4 Gas-to-Jet
3.4.1 Fischer–Tropsch
3.4.1.1 The Catalysts for FT Synthesis
3.4.2 Biomass-to-Fuel
3.5 Sugar-to-Jet
3.5.1 Direct Sugar-to-Hydrocarbon
3.5.2 Aqueous-Phase Reforming
3.6 Economic and Environmental Analysis of Biojet Fuel Pathways
3.7 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Comparative Analysis of Biojet Fuel Production from Different Potential Substrates
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sugars and Starch
4.2.1 Sugarcane
4.2.2 Corn
4.2.3 Cassava
4.3 Triglyceride
4.3.1 Soybeans
4.3.2 Palm
4.3.3 Sunflower
4.3.4 Castor Bean
4.3.5 Rapeseed/Canola Seed
4.3.6 Jatropha
4.3.7 Camelina
4.3.8 Algae
4.4 Cellulosic Materials
4.4.1 Sugarcane Bagasse and Trash
4.4.2 Grasses
4.4.3 Plant Residues
4.4.4 Wood and Wood By-Products
4.5 Wastes
4.5.1 Municipal Solid Wastes
4.5.2 Sewage
4.5.3 Flue Gas
4.6 Comparative Analysis of Feedstock
4.7 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 5: Characteristics of Biojet Fuel
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Properties of Fuels Used in Aircraft
5.3 Different Production Technologies of Biojets
5.3.1 Alcohol Oligomerization
5.3.2 Fermentation of Sugar and Platform Molecules
5.3.3 Hydroprocessing
5.3.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
5.3.5 Hydrotreated Depolymerized Cellulosic Jet (HDCJ)
5.3.6 Fischer–Tropsch (F-T) Synthesis
5.4 Performance Attributes of BJFs
5.4.1 Low-Temperature Fluidity
5.4.1.1 Freezing Point
5.4.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity at −20 °C
5.4.2 Stability During Thermal Oxidation
5.4.2.1 Thermal Stability
5.4.2.2 Oxidative Stability
5.4.3 Combustion Characteristics
5.4.3.1 Smoke Point
5.4.3.2 Particulate Matter (PM) Emissions
5.4.3.3 Gaseous Emissions
5.4.3.4 Derived Cetane Number (DCN)
5.4.4 Consistency with the Current Aviation Fueling Infrastructure
5.4.4.1 Volume Swell of Seal Materials
5.4.4.2 Lubricity
5.4.5 Volatility of Fuel
5.4.5.1 Distillation Property
5.4.5.2 Flash Point
5.4.6 Fuel Metering and Aircraft Range
5.4.6.1 Density of Fuel at 15 °C
5.4.6.2 Net Heat of Combustion
5.5 Challenges and Future Look
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Upgrading Biomass-Derived Pyrolysis Bio-Oil to BioJet Fuel Through Catalytic Cracking and Hydrodeoxygenation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bio-Oil Composition and Characterization
6.3 Biosynthetic Pathway of Bio-Oil
6.4 Methods for Bio-Oil Production
6.5 Production of Bio-Oil from Biomass
6.6 Impact of Operating Parameters on Bio-Oil Production
6.6.1 Impact of Cellulose, Hemicelluloses, and Lignin Content
6.6.2 Impact of Product on Biomass Breakdown and Dynamics Research
6.6.3 Impact of Particle Dimensions
6.6.4 Impact of Moisture Content
6.6.5 Impact of Fixed Carbon Content
6.6.6 Impact of Volatile Matter
6.6.7 Impact of Ash Content
6.6.8 Impact of Temperature
6.6.9 Impact of Heating Rate
6.7 Weakness of Bio-Oil for Use as Bio-Jet Fuel
6.8 SWOT Analysis of Bio-Oil and Its Upgradation
6.9 Catalytic Cracking of Bio-Oil
6.10 Hydrodeoxygenation
6.11 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 7: Bio-Aviation Fuel via Catalytic Hydrocracking of Waste Cooking Oil
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Waste Cooking Oil (WCO): Feedstock for Bio-Aviation Fuel
7.3 Hydrocracking Process
7.4 Catalyst
7.5 Jet Fuel Specifications
7.6 Factors Affecting Hydrocracking Process
7.7 Challenges in WCO Biofuels
7.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Techno-Economic Analysis of Biojet Fuel Production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Feedstock’s Composition and Their Properties for Biojet Fuel Production
8.3 Opportunities and Barriers for Adopting BJF and Their Feedstocks
8.3.1 Opportunities
8.3.2 Barriers
8.3.3 Adoption of Biojet Fuel (BJF) and Their Feedstocks: Opportunities and Challenges
8.4 Specification for Biojet Fuel Production
8.5 Pathways for Synthesis of BJF
8.5.1 Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
8.5.2 Synthesis Through Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
8.5.3 ATJ (Alcohol-to-Jet)
8.5.4 Hydrothermal Catalysis (CH)
8.5.5 (Lipid-CHTC) Lipid-Catalytic Hydrothermal Conversion
8.5.6 Biochemical Transformation
8.6 Production Routes for Biojet
8.6.1 Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) Pathway
8.6.2 Synthesis Through Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
8.6.3 Pathway from Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ)
8.6.4 Pathway for Catalytic Hydrothermolysis (CH)
8.6.5 Pathway for Lipid-Catalytic Hydrothermal Conversion (Lipid-CHTC)
8.6.6 Pathway of Biochemical Conversion
8.7 Sensitivity Detection
8.8 Various Potential Assessments
8.9 Environmental Significance of BJF Production
8.9.1 Innovations in Conversion Technologies, Refining Processes, and Sustainable Feedstock Cultivation
8.10 Future Prospects of BJF
8.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Different Applications of Bio-Jet Fuel
9.1 Introduction
9.2 History of Bio-Jet Fuel
9.3 Types of Bio-Jet Fuel
9.3.1 Feedstock-Based Classification
9.3.1.1 Plant-Based Bio-Jet Fuel
9.3.1.2 Algae-Based Bio-Jet Fuel
9.3.1.3 Waste-Based Bio-Jet Fuel
9.3.2 Process-Based Classification
9.3.2.1 Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
9.3.2.2 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FT)
9.3.2.3 Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ)
9.3.2.4 Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL)
9.3.3 Blending and Certification
9.4 Advantages of Bio-Jet Fuel
9.4.1 Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions
9.4.2 Energy Security and Diversification
9.4.3 Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure
9.4.4 Job Creation and Economic Development
9.4.5 Waste Utilisation and Sustainability
9.4.6 Promotion of Innovation and Research
9.4.7 Corporate Sustainability and Environmental Responsibility
9.4.8 Compliance with Regulations and International Agreements
9.4.9 Air Quality Improvement
9.4.10 Technological Advancements and Scale-Up Potential
9.5 Disadvantages of Bio-Jet Fuel
9.5.1 Limited Feedstock Availability
9.5.2 Land Use and Deforestation
9.5.3 Water Usage and Impact on Water Resources
9.5.4 Energy Intensive Production
9.5.5 Impact on Soil Quality
9.5.6 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
9.5.7 Economic Viability and Scale-Up Challenges
9.5.8 Technological and Infrastructure Challenges
9.5.9 Food Security Concerns
9.6 Growth of Aviation Industry
9.7 Various Applications of Bio-Jet Fuels
9.7.1 First-Generation Biofuels (Edible Crops)
9.7.2 Second-Generation Biofuels (Lignocellulose, Non-Edible Crops, Animal Feedstock)
9.7.3 Third-Generation Biofuels (Algal Feedstock)
9.7.4 Fourth-Generation Feedstocks
9.7.5 Potential Source of Microalgae for Bio-Jet Fuel
9.8 Current Policies on Bio-Jet Fuels
9.9 Challenges and Future Outlook
9.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Sustainability of Biojet Fuel
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biojet Fuel
10.3 Raw Materials for SPK Derived from Biomass
10.3.1 1st Generation (1G) Raw Materials
10.3.2 2nd Generation (2G) Raw Materials
10.3.3 3rd Generation (3G) Raw Materials
10.3.4 4th Generation (4G) Raw Materials
10.4 Production Pathways for SPK
10.4.1 HEFA
10.4.1.1 LCA
10.4.2 FT
10.4.2.1 LCA
10.4.3 ATJ
10.4.3.1 LCA
10.4.4 HFS
10.4.4.1 LCA
10.5 International Initiatives and Policies
10.6 Sustainability of BJF
10.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Current Technological Status and Future Prospect of Biojet Fuel Production
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biojet Fuels
11.2.1 The Need for Sustainable Aviation
11.2.2 Feedstock Consideration for Biomass-Derived Biojet Fuel
11.2.2.1 First-Generation Feedstock
11.2.2.2 Second-Generation Feedstock
11.2.2.3 Third-Generation Feedstocks
11.2.2.4 Fourth-Generation Feedstocks
11.3 Advancement in Feedstock Selection for Biojet Fuel Production
11.3.1 Feedstock Selection
11.3.2 Advances in Feedstock Cultivation and Harvesting Techniques
11.3.3 Genetic Engineering and Breeding for Improved Feedstock Traits
11.4 Current Conversion Technologies for Biojet Fuel Production
11.4.1 Thermochemical Conversion Processes
11.4.1.1 Pyrolysis
11.4.1.2 Gasification
11.4.1.3 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
11.4.2 Catalytic Conversion Processes
11.4.2.1 Hydroprocessing
11.4.2.2 Hydrotreating
11.4.2.3 Deoxygenation
11.4.3 Biochemical Conversion
11.4.3.1 Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ)
11.4.3.2 Lignin-to-Jet (LTJ)
11.4.3.3 Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbons (DSHC)
11.4.4 Electrofuels
11.4.5 Microbial Conversion Processes
11.4.6 Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) Technique
11.4.7 Hydroisomerization Technique
11.5 Refining and Upgrading of Biojet Fuels
11.5.1 Integrated Biorefineries
11.5.2 Catalysts Used in Biojet Fuel Production for Quality Enhancement
11.5.3 Blending and Compatibility Considerations for Biojet Fuels
11.6 Sustainability and Environmental Impact
11.6.1 Life Cycle Assessment of Biojet Fuel Production
11.6.2 Carbon Footprint Reduction Strategies
11.7 Technological Challenges of Biojet Fuel Production
11.7.1 Low Oil Prices and Competition with Traditional Jet Fuel
11.7.2 High Production Costs
11.7.3 Infrastructure Barriers
11.7.4 Strict Fuel Standards
11.8 Future Prospective
11.8.1 Promising Research Area
11.8.2 Opportunities for Biojet Fuel Production
11.8.2.1 Increasing Emissions/Demand for Jet Fuel
11.8.2.2 Demand for Diversification of Jet Fuel Supply
11.8.2.3 Potential Profitability and Positive Public Perception of Biofuels
11.8.2.4 Supportive Government Policy
11.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Life Cycle Assessment of Bio-Jet Fuel
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Historical Aspects and Definitions
12.2.1 Important LCA Definitions and Concepts
12.3 Biomass to BJF Conversion
12.4 BJF Production Routes
12.5 System Boundary and LCA Framework
12.6 Methods to Deal with Co-Products
12.6.1 Practices of the Circular Economy and Recycling
12.7 Land Availability for BJF Production
12.8 Environmental Impact Assessment
12.9 Yield Developments
12.10 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis
12.11 Specification for Bio-Jet Fuel
12.11.1 Physical Characteristics
12.11.2 Chemical Characteristics
12.11.3 Impurities and Contaminants
12.11.4 Sustainability and Renewability
12.12 Technology Assessment of BJF Routes
12.12.1 HTL: Hydrothermal Liquefaction
12.13 Comparison of Three Bio-Jet Fuel Paths
12.14 Regulations, Guidelines, and Accounting Standards
12.15 Conclusion
References