Bioenergy Research: Basic and Advanced Concepts

✍ Scribed by Manish Srivastava (editor), Neha Srivastava (editor), Rajeev Singh (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 350
• Series: Clean Energy Production Technologies
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This volume is first part of the five-part set on bioenergy research. This volume covers current developments and both basic and advanced concepts in bioenergy production. Based on bioenergy road map, the book will also evaluate about the ratio existing between current challenges associated and practical implementation of these biofuels. The book complies up to-date progressive development in available bioenergy options and discusses opportunities and existing risks. The main objective of the book is to provide insights into the opportunities and required actions for the development of an economically viable bioenergy industry for practical replacement of fossil fuels. This book is of interest to teachers, researchers, scientists, capacity builders and policymakers. Also the book serves as additional reading material for undergraduate and graduate students of environmental sciences. National and international bioenergy scientists, policy makers will also find this to be a useful read. Other four volumes of this set explore latest developments, commercial opportunities, waste to energy and integrated solution for bioenergy concerns.

✦ Table of Contents

Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Downstream Processing of Biofuels
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Biofuels and Their Importance
1.1.2 History of Biofuels
1.1.3 Different Generations of Biofuels
1.1.4 Biofuel Development Across the Globe
1.1.5 Specifications for Biofuels
1.2 Production of Bioethanol
1.2.1 Downstream Processing of Biofuels
1.2.1.1 Pervaporation
1.2.1.2 Gas Stripping
1.2.1.3 Distillation
Heat-Integrated Distillation
Membrane-Based Downstream Separation
Ohmic-Assisted Hydrodistillation
1.2.1.4 Diffusion Distillation
1.2.1.5 Salting out Method
1.2.1.6 Adsorption
1.2.1.7 Extraction Liquid-Liquid
1.2.2 In Situ/In-Stream Recovery Techniques
1.2.2.1 In-Stream Recovery
1.2.2.2 Vacuum Fermentation
1.2.3 Comparison of Various Biofuels Recovery Techniques on the Basis of Economics
1.2.4 Downstream Processing of Third Generation of Biofuels
1.3 Harvesting Method
1.3.1 Settling/Sedimentation/Gravity Sedimentation
1.3.2 Centrifugation
1.3.3 Filtration
1.3.4 Sedimentation
1.3.5 Membrane Separation
1.3.6 Flocculation
1.3.6.1 Chemical Flocculation
1.3.6.2 Auto and Bioflocculation
1.3.6.3 Inorganic Flocculants and Coagulants
1.3.6.4 Organic Flocculants and Coagulants
1.3.6.5 Electroflocculation/Electro-Coagulation/Electrolytic Aggregation
1.3.7 Flotation
1.3.7.1 Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)
1.3.7.2 Froth Floatation
1.3.7.3 Dispersed Flotation
1.3.7.4 Ozone Flotation
1.3.7.5 Electrolytic Flotation
1.3.7.6 Foam Flotation
1.3.8 Magnetic Separation
1.3.9 Ultrasonic Separation
1.4 Cell Disruption Techniques
1.4.1 Bead Beating
1.4.2 High-Pressure Homogenization
1.5 Extraction of Lipid
1.5.1 Single Solvent Extraction
1.5.2 Supercritical Extraction
1.5.3 Enzymatic Extraction
1.5.4 Extraction Through Ultrasound
1.5.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction
1.5.6 Ionic Liquids for Extraction
1.6 Hydrodynamic Fluidic Devices
1.7 Direct Biofuel Production from Algae
1.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Application of Microorganisms for Biofuel Production
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biofuels: Definition, Classification and Characterization
2.2.1 Characteristics of Biofuels
2.2.1.1 Classification of Biofuels According to Generations
2.3 Technology for Production of Biofuels
2.3.1 Pretreatment
2.3.2 Enzyme Conversion Technology
2.4 Microbial Production of Biodiesel
2.4.1 Microbial Production of Biodiesel
2.4.1.1 Microalgae
2.4.1.2 Production of Biomass from Microalgae
2.4.1.3 Trans-Esterification
2.4.2 Bacteria
2.4.3 Yeast and Fungi
2.5 Bioethanol
2.5.1 Substrates for Bioethanol Production
2.5.2 Stages of Bioethanol Production
2.5.3 Microbiological Production of Bioethanol
2.6 Microbiological Production of Hydrogen
2.6.1 Substrate Involved in Fermentation
2.6.2 Microorganisms Involved in Biohydrogen Production
2.6.3 Pretreatments for the Feedstock
2.6.4 Dark Fermentation
2.6.5 Photofermentation
2.6.6 Biophotolysis of Water Using Algae and Cyanobacteria
2.6.6.1 Direct Biophotolysis
2.6.6.2 Indirect Biophotolysis
2.6.7 Hybrid System Using Photosynthetic and Fermentative Bacteria:
2.6.8 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
2.6.9 Biohydrogen Production from Algae
2.7 Microbial Production of Biogas/Biomethane
2.7.1 Feedstock for Biogas Production
2.7.2 Biological and Chemical Process
2.7.3 Hydrolysis
2.7.4 Acidogenesis
2.7.5 Acetogenesis
2.7.6 Methanogenesis
2.8 Microbial Production of Butanol
2.8.1 Feedstock for Biobutanol Production
2.8.2 Microorganisms Involved in Butanol Production
2.8.3 Production Process
2.8.4 Pretreatment Process
2.8.5 Physical Treatment
2.8.6 Physicochemical Method
2.8.7 Chemical Method
2.8.8 Production Process
2.8.9 Applications
2.9 Syngas Fermentation
2.9.1 Microorganisms Involved
2.9.2 Fermentation
2.9.3 Application
2.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Influence of Significant Parameters on Cellulase Production by Solid-State Fermentation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cellulose
3.3 Cellulases
3.4 Composition of Lignocelluloses
3.5 Influence of Important Parameters on Production of Cellulase
3.5.1 Lignocellulosic Substrates
3.5.2 Carbon Source
3.5.3 Nitrogen Source
3.5.4 pH
3.5.5 Temperature
3.5.6 Moisture Content
3.6 Cellulase in Biomass Hydrolysis and Biofuel Production
3.7 Future Perspectives and Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Influence of Xenobiotics on Fungal Ligninolytic Enzymes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Effect of Contaminants (Xenobiotics) on the Biomass of WRF
4.2.1 Effect of Insecticide: Malathion
4.2.2 Effect of Organophosphorus Insecticides (Diazinon, Profenofos, and Malathion)
4.2.3 Effect of Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH)
4.2.4 Influence of Lindane
4.2.5 Effect of Diuron
4.2.6 Effect of Chlorophenols
4.2.7 Effect of Diuron and Bentazon
4.2.8 Effect of Fungicides (Thiram, Zineb, or PCP) and Heavy Metals
4.2.9 Effect of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)
4.2.10 Influence of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
4.3 Effect of Xenobiotics on the Secretion of LMEs by WRF
4.3.1 Effect of Malathion
4.3.2 Effect of Lindane
4.3.3 Effect of Isoproturon
4.3.4 Effect of Herbicides Diuron and Bentazon
4.3.5 Effect of Diuron
4.3.6 Effect of Chlorpyrifos
4.3.7 Effect of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
4.3.8 Effect of Fluorene
4.3.9 Effect of Dyes
4.4 Biodegradation of Pollutants by WRF
4.4.1 LE Involved in Bioremediation of Xenobiotic Compounds
4.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Challenges in Bioethanol Production: Effect of Inhibitory Compounds
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Pretreatment Explained
5.1.1.1 Mechanical Pretreatment
5.1.1.2 Chemical Pretreatment Methods
5.1.1.3 Physico-Chemical Pretreatment
5.1.1.4 Biological Pretreatment
5.1.1.5 Combined Pretreatments
5.2 Effect on Lignocellulosic Structures
5.3 Hydroxymethyl Furfural (HMF)
5.4 Furfural
5.5 Weak Acids
5.6 Phenolic Compounds
5.7 How to Minimize Inhibitory Compound Formation
5.7.1 Removal of Inhibitory Compounds
5.7.2 Biological Detoxification
5.8 Drawbacks of Biological Method
5.8.1 Adaptation of Microbes
5.8.2 Genetic Engineering
5.8.3 Some Other General Strategies
5.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Engineering of Zymomonas mobilis for Enhanced Biofuel Production
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Attractive Physical Characteristics of Zymomonas mobilis for Biotechnology
6.3 Sequence Detection of Various Genes of Zymomonas mobilis
6.4 Improvement of Strain by Adaptable Laboratory Evolution (ALE)
6.5 Escalation in the Surface Implementation Variety of Zymomonas mobilis
6.6 Modifying Laboratory Transformation of Ethanologenic Zymomonas mobilis Strain that Is Being Tolerant to Acetic Acid Inhibi...
6.7 Functional Genes in Z. mobilis
6.7.1 How Z. mobilis Is Unique
6.7.2 Pretreatment of Biomass
6.7.3 Biomass Feedstocks
6.7.4 Strategies to Overcome Toxic Compounds
6.7.5 Strain Evaluation and Fermentation Strategies
6.8 Fermentation Systems
6.9 Biosynthesis Pathways
6.10 Valuable Byproducts of Z. mobilis
6.10.1 Isobutanol Production
6.10.2 Levan Production
6.10.3 Substrate Utilization Range
6.11 Strategies for Strain Improvement of Z. mobilis
6.11.1 Conventional Mutagenesis
6.11.2 Transposon Mutagenesis
6.11.3 Adaptive Laboratory Evolution (ALE)
6.11.4 Conjugation
6.11.5 Recombination
6.11.6 Recombinant Strains of Z. mobilis
6.11.7 Co-Fermentation
6.11.8 Consolidated Bioprocessing Approach (CBP)
6.11.9 Gene Knockout
6.11.10 Genomics
6.11.11 Transcriptomic
6.11.12 Using Shuttle Vectors
6.12 Heterologous Biofuel Production
6.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Sustainable Production of Hydrogen by Algae: Current Status and Future Perspectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Hydrogen Production by Algae
7.3 Microalgae for Hydrogen Production
7.4 Macroalgae for Hydrogen Production
7.5 Mechanism of Hydrogen Production by Algae
7.6 Factors Affecting the Production of Hydrogen by Algae
7.6.1 Nutrients
7.6.2 pH, Temperature, and Pretreatment
7.6.3 Substrate and Salt Concentration
7.6.4 Light Intensity
7.7 Bioreactors for Algal Hydrogen Production
7.8 Current Status of Algal Hydrogen Production.
7.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Bioprocess Parameters for Thermophilic and Mesophilic Biogas Production: Recent Trends and Challenges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Thermophilic and Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion
8.3 Mechanism of Biogas Production
8.4 Microorganisms in Anaerobic Digestion
8.5 Process Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
8.6 Reactor Design
8.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Anaerobic Treatment
8.8 Challenges in Biogas Production
8.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Microbial and Bioinformatics Approach in Biofuel Production
9.1 Biofuels
9.2 Pretreatment of Biomass
9.2.1 Physical Methods
9.2.2 Chemical Methods
9.2.3 Physiochemical Methods
9.2.4 Biological Methods
9.3 Lignocellulose
9.3.1 Cellulose and Cellulolytic Enzymes
9.3.1.1 Endoglucanases (Endo-1,4-β-Glucanes or 1,4-β-D-Glucan-4-Glucanohydrolases, EC 3.2.1.4)
9.3.1.2 Exoglucanases (Cellodextrinase or 1,4-β-D-Glucan Glucanohydrolases, EC 3.2.1.74) and Cellobiohydrolases (Exo-1,4-β-Glu...
9.3.1.3 β-Glucosidases (Cellobiases or β-D-Glucoside Glucohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.21)
9.3.2 Complex Cellulose Systems (Cellulosome)
9.3.3 Hemicelluloses
9.3.3.1 Xylan and Xylolytic Enzymes
Xylanases (EC 3.2.1.8)
Xylosidases
Glucuronidases
9.3.3.2 Endoarabinases and Arabinofuranosidases
9.3.3.3 Esterases (EC 3.1)
9.3.3.4 Mannan and Mannolytic Enzymes
Mannanases
9.3.4 Lignin and Ligninolytic Enzymes
9.4 Other Enzymes
9.4.1 Pectin and Pectinolytic Enzymes
9.4.2 Starch and Amylolytic Enzymes
9.4.2.1 α-Amylases (EC 3.2.1.1)
9.4.2.2 β-Amylases (EC 3.2.1.2)
9.4.2.3 Glucoamylases (EC 3.2.1.3)
9.4.2.4 Isoamylases (EC 3.2.1.68)
9.4.2.5 α-Glucosidases (EC 3.2.1.20)
9.4.2.6 Cyclodextrin Glycosyltransferases (EC 2.4.1.19)
9.4.3 Pullulan and Pullulanolytic Enzymes
9.4.3.1 Type I Pullulanase (Pullulan α-1,6-Glucanohydrolase, α-Dextrin-Endo-1,6-Glucanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.41)
9.4.3.2 Type II Pullulanase (Amylopullulanase, EC 3.2.1.1./41, α-Amylase-Pullulanase, EC 3.2.1.1)
9.4.3.3 Pullulan Hydrolase Type I (Neopullulanase, Pullulan-4-D-Glucanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.135)
9.4.3.4 Pullulan Type II Hydrolase (Isopullulanase, Pullulan-4-Glucanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.57)
9.4.3.5 Pullulan Type III Hydrolase (EC 3.2.1._)
9.4.4 Proteases (EC 3.4)
9.4.5 Non-hydrolytic Cellulose-Degrading Enzymes (LPMOs: Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases)
9.5 Enzymatic Cocktails
9.6 The Role of Genetic Engineering and Bioinformatics in Biofuel Production
9.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Substrate Characterization in the Anaerobic Digestion Process
10.1 Biogas Raw Materials Characteristics
10.2 Biogas Raw Materials and Inoculum Characterization
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 Sampling
10.2.3 Sample Transport, Storage, and Preparation
10.2.4 pH Measurement
10.2.5 Total Solids (TS) and Volatile Solids (VS)
10.2.6 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
10.2.7 Concentration of Nitrogen
10.2.8 Total Organic Carbon
10.2.9 Trace Elements
10.2.10 Sulfur
10.2.11 Phosphorus
10.2.12 Alkalinity
10.2.13 Volatile Fatty Acids
10.2.14 Carbohydrates
10.2.15 Fats
10.2.16 Proteins
10.2.17 Summary
10.3 BMP Tests
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Recommendations to Perform BMP and Validate Correctly the Results
10.3.2.1 Inoculum
10.3.2.2 Substrate
10.3.2.3 Test Setup
10.3.3 Limitations of the BMP Tests
10.4 Gas Yield Quantification
10.5 Biogas Composition Analysis
10.6 Data Analysis and Reporting
10.7 Microbiome Analysis
10.7.1 PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
10.7.2 Metatranscriptomics
10.7.3 Metaproteonomics
10.7.4 Metabolomics
10.7.5 MAR
10.8 Conclusions
References