Basic Principles of Topography

✍ Scribed by Markoski, Blagoja

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2018
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 229
• Series: Springer Geography
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book gives a comprehensive overview of all relevant elements in topography and their practical application. It elaborates on the classical representation of terrain on maps such as cartographic projections, together with their classification, scale, and geographical elements. It is richly illustrated with photographs, maps and figures, in which the theoretical explanations are clarified.Readers will become acquainted with the physical characteristics of the ground, i.e. tectonic and erosive shapes, the importance and classification of terrain, genetic (fluvial, abrasive, glacial, karst) and topographic types such as higher (mountains, hills, peaks) and lower terrain (valleys, fields). In addition, the book discusses cartometry and coordinate systems, orientation in space (geographic, topographic, tactical) including by means of maps, instruments and the night sky and elaborates new techniques and technologies such as aerial photogrammetric imagery, global navigation satellite systems and LiDAR. The book also includes methods for the practical execution of concrete measurement operations, such as determining position and movement on land with maps, compass and azimuth which makes it especially useful for practitioners and professionals, e.g., for landscape planning, military exercises, mountaineering, nature walks etc. As such it offers a valuable guide not only for undergraduate students but also for researchers in the fields of geography, geosciences, geodesy, ecology, forestry and related areas looking for an overview on topography. Uniquely, the book also features an extensive glossary of topographical terms.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
About the Author......Page 12
1.1.1 Subject......Page 14
1.1.4 Significance......Page 15
1.2.2 Size of the Earth......Page 16
1.2.3 Land and Water Surface of Earth......Page 17
1.3.1 Tectonic Landforms......Page 18
1.3.4 Significance of Relief......Page 19
1.3.6.1 Fluvial Relief......Page 20
1.3.6.2 Abrasive Relief......Page 22
1.3.6.3 Glacial Relief......Page 23
1.3.6.4 Karst Relief......Page 25
1.3.6.5 Aeolian Relief......Page 26
1.3.7.1 Hills......Page 27
1.3.7.2 Mountain Relief......Page 28
1.3.7.3 Mountain (Hill) Spur......Page 29
1.3.7.5 Flatland Relief......Page 30
1.3.7.6 Depressions......Page 31
1.3.7.8 Valleys......Page 32
1.3.8 Morphometric Elements of Relief......Page 33
1.3.8.3 Relief Expositions......Page 34
1.3.8.4 Absolute and Relative Relief Height......Page 35
References......Page 36
2.1.1 Concept of Map......Page 38
2.1.4 Classification of Maps......Page 39
2.1.5 Elements of Maps......Page 41
References......Page 42
3.1.1 Concept of Cartographic Projection......Page 43
3.1.3 Gauss–Krüger Projection......Page 44
3.1.4 UTM Projection......Page 49
3.1.5 UTM Grid......Page 52
3.2.1 Principal and Fractional Scale......Page 56
3.2.2 Designation of Scale on Map......Page 57
3.2.3.1 Use of Numerical Scale......Page 58
3.2.3.2 Determination of Unknown Scale......Page 59
3.2.4.1 Linear Scale Bar......Page 60
3.2.4.4 Transversal Scale Bar......Page 61
3.2.5.1 Surface Scale......Page 62
3.3 Map Border......Page 63
3.3.2 Content of Map Borders......Page 65
3.3.5 Border of Enclosed Maps......Page 66
3.4 Questions......Page 67
References......Page 68
Abstract......Page 69
4.1.1 Methods of Cartographic Relief Mapping......Page 70
Contour Lines......Page 71
4.1.1.3 Representation of Relief by the Shading Method......Page 77
4.1.1.4 Representation of Relief by the Method of Layers or Contour Lines Tinting......Page 79
4.1.1.5 Combined Methods......Page 80
4.1.1.6 Orthophoto Maps......Page 81
4.2.1 Representation of Water Surfaces......Page 83
4.2.4 Cartographic Symbols for Representation of Hydrographic Elements......Page 85
4.3.3 Cartographic Representation of Land and Vegetation......Page 87
4.4.2 Classification......Page 89
4.4.3 Cartographic Representation of Settlements......Page 90
4.5.2 Classification......Page 91
4.6.2 Cartographic Representation of Communications......Page 92
4.8 Geographic Names and Captions......Page 93
4.8.3 Orthography and Abbreviations......Page 94
4.9 Questions......Page 95
References......Page 96
5.1 In Place of an Introduction......Page 98
5.2.1 Determining Geographic Coordinates......Page 99
5.2.2 Determining Rectangular Coordinates......Page 101
5.2.3 Determining Polar Coordinates......Page 103
5.3 Measuring Distances on a Map......Page 104
5.4 Determining Immediate Distances on the Ground......Page 108
5.5 Measuring Surface on a Map......Page 110
5.6.1 Measuring Horizontal Angles......Page 114
5.6.2 Measuring Vertical Angles......Page 117
5.7 Ground Profile and Its Development......Page 120
5.8 Questions......Page 121
References......Page 122
6.1 Concept of Orientation......Page 124
6.2.1 Geographic Orientation......Page 125
6.3 Ways of Orientation......Page 126
6.3.1 On-Ground Orientation Without a Map......Page 127
6.3.1.1 On-Ground Orientation Based on Celestial Bodies......Page 128
On-Ground Orientation by the Moon......Page 129
On-Ground Orientation Using the Sun and a Clock......Page 130
On-Ground Orientation Using the Sun, a Clock and Shadow......Page 131
On-Ground Orientation Using the Sun, a Clock and Time Elapsed......Page 132
On-Ground Orientation Using the Sun and the Equal-Shading Method......Page 133
On-Ground Orientation Using Religious Objects......Page 135
On-Ground Orientation Using a Variety of Other Phenomena and Objects......Page 136
6.3.1.4 On-Ground Orientation Using Compass Instruments......Page 137
Hand Compass M-53......Page 138
6.3.2.1 On-Ground Orientation Using Landmarks......Page 142
6.3.2.3 Orientation of a Map......Page 144
Orientation of a Map According to Directions From a Standing Point of View Towards Known Objects on the Ground......Page 145
Orientation of a Map Based on Distinctive Relief Lines on the Ground......Page 146
Orientation of a Map Using a Hand Compass......Page 147
Orienting a Map Using Navigational Instruments......Page 148
6.3.3.1 Methods to Determine a Standing Point......Page 149
Determining a Standing Point by Measuring the Distance Passed From a Familiar Object Identified on a Map......Page 150
Determining a Standing Point by Intersection Behind Using Back Azimuths......Page 151
Determining a Standing Point by Intersecting Directions From the Side......Page 152
Determining a Standing Point by an Intersection of Directions Backwards......Page 153
Determining a Standing Point by Measuring From Known Points or Using a Method of Arc Intersection......Page 154
6.4.1 Overland Movement Using a Map......Page 155
6.4.2 Overland Movement Using a Compass and Azimuth......Page 158
6.5 Questions......Page 159
References......Page 161
7.1 Aerial Photogrammetric Imagery......Page 162
7.1.1 Use of Aerial Photogrammetric Images......Page 163
7.2 Satellite Systems and Images......Page 165
7.3 Global Navigation Satellite Systems......Page 167
7.3.1.1 General Information About the GPS......Page 168
7.3.1.2 Application of the GPS......Page 169
7.3.2.1 Signals of the GLONASS Satellite System......Page 173
7.3.4 The Role of GPS Navigation and Measurements......Page 174
7.3.5 LIDAR—A Method of Remote Surveillance and Examination of Earth’s Surface by Scanning......Page 177
7.4 Use of LIDAR......Page 178
7.5.1 Google Earth......Page 180
7.5.1.1 Satellite Images in Google Earth......Page 181
7.5.2 Other Practical Applications for Overland Movement......Page 182
7.5.2.2 HERE Website......Page 183
7.6 Questions......Page 184
References......Page 185
8.1 In Place of an Introduction......Page 188
8.2 Principles of Thematic Cartographic Representation......Page 189
8.3 Working Order......Page 190
References......Page 193
Annex I......Page 194
Annex II......Page 213