Preface
About This Book
Key Features
Contents
About the Author
1 Semiconductor—An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Structure of Solids
1.3 Atomic Structure and Energy Levels
1.3.1 Energy Levels of Electrons in Isolated Atoms
1.3.2 Interatomic Forces of Closer Atoms like in Solids
1.4 Energy Levels of Electrons in Solids
1.5 Energy Band Structures
1.5.1 Forbidden Energy Gaps and Band Structures
1.5.2 Insulators, Metals and Semiconductors on the Basis of Energy Band Gap
1.5.2.1 Insulators
1.5.2.2 Metals or Conductors
1.5.2.3 Semiconductors
1.6 Comparison of Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators
1.7 Classification of Semiconductor: Intrinsic and Extrinsic
1.8 Intrinsic Semiconductor
1.8.1 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductor: Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors
1.8.2 Formation of Free Electrons and Holes as Free Carriers
1.8.3 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductors
1.9 Extrinsic Semiconductors: Donor and Acceptor Levels
1.9.1 Space Charge Neutrality and n-Type/p-Type Semiconductor
1.10 Fermi Level
1.11 Drift and Diffusion Currents
1.11.1 Conventional Current and Electron Flow
1.11.2 Drift Current, Mobility, Conductivity and Law of Mass Action
1.11.3 Diffusion Current, Diffusion Length and Einstein Relation
1.11.4 Using Diffusion Concept for Identifying n- or p-Type Semiconductor
1.11.5 High Field and Electron Velocity Saturation
1.12 Hall Effect and Other Properties of Semiconductors
1.12.1 Hall Effect to Measure Magnetic Field Strength or to Identity Between n/p-Type Semiconductors
1.13 Comparison of Properties
1.13.1 Comparison Between Metals (Conductors) and Semiconductors
1.13.2 Comparison Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
1.13.3 Comparison Between n-Type and p-Type Semiconductors
1.13.4 Electrical Properties of Ge and Si
Questions
2 Semiconductor Diodes and Application
2.1 The pn Junction Diode
2.1.1 Depletion Region Formation in pn Diode Without Bias
2.1.2 Reverse Biasing and Minority Current
2.1.3 Forward Biasing and Majority Current
2.1.4 Total V-I Characteristics of a pn Junction Diode—Experimentally
2.1.5 Dependence of Reverse Leakage Current (I0) on Temperature
2.1.6 Calculations of Built-in Potential (VBP) and Depletion Layer Width, with or Without Bias
2.1.7 Comparison of Silicon and Germanium Diodes
2.2 Breakdown Diodes—Avalanche and Zener
2.2.1 Breakdown Mechanisms
2.2.2 Comparison of Zener and Avalanche Breakdown Diode
2.2.3 Zener Diode Characteristics and Specification
2.2.4 Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
2.2.4.1 Limitation of Zener Regulators
2.2.5 Effect of Temperatures on Zener Diodes
2.3 Rectifiers
2.3.1 Half-Wave Rectifier
2.3.2 Full-Wave Rectifier
2.3.2.1 Full-Wave Centre-Tap Rectifier
2.3.2.2 Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
2.3.2.3 Advantage of Bridge Rectifier Over Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
2.3.2.4 Comparison of Rectifiers
2.4 Filters
2.4.1 Inductor Filter
2.4.2 Capacitor Filter
2.4.3 LC Filter
2.4.4 Multiple LC Filters
2.4.5 CLC or {{\varvec \uppi}} -Type Filter
2.4.6 R–C Filler
2.5 Diode Clippers
2.5.1 Positive Clippers
2.5.2 Negative Clipper
2.5.3 Biased Positive Top Clipper
2.5.4 Biased Positive Upper Clipper with −ve Polarity of the Battery (VR)
2.5.5 Biased Negative Bottom Clipper
2.5.6 Biased Negative Lower Clipper with +ve Polarity of the Battery (VR)
2.5.7 Combination Clipper (Two Biased Diodes Clipper)
2.5.7.1 Summary Table of Clippers
Questions
3 Junction Transistors and Field-Effect Transistors
3.1 Introduction of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) &!blank;and Its Construction
3.2 Transistor Biasing
3.3 Working of npn and pnp Transistor
3.3.1 npn Transistor
3.3.2 pnp Transistor
3.3.3 Minority Carrier and Potential Inside pnp Transistor
3.4 Early Effect or Base-Width Modulation
3.5 BJT Configuration and Characteristics
3.5.1 Common Base (CB) Configuration
3.5.2 Common–Emitter (CE) Configuration
3.5.3 Common Collector (CC) Configuration
3.5.4 Comparison Between CB, CE, CC Configurations
3.5.5 Relation Among Current Amplification Factor of CB, CE and CC Configurations
3.6 Field-Effect Transistor or UJT
3.6.1 Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)
3.6.2 JFET Biasing and Operation
3.6.3 JFET Parameters
3.6.4 Comparison Between FET and BJT
3.6.5 Advantage and Disadvantage of JFET
3.6.6 Applications of JFET
3.7 Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
3.7.1 Enhancement Type MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
3.7.2 Depletion Type MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
3.7.3 Comparison of JFET and MOSFETs
3.7.4 Comparison of JFET and D-MOSFET
3.7.5 Comparison of E-MOSFET and D-MOSFET
Questions
4 Optoelectric Devices
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
4.3 Principle of LED
4.4 Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell
4.5 Photodiode Detector
4.5.1 Construction of Photodiode Detector
4.5.2 Working of Photodiode Detector
4.5.3 Properties of Photodiode Detector
4.5.4 Application of Photodiode Detector
4.6 Phototransistor Detector
4.6.1 Construction of Phototransistor Detector
4.6.2 Working of Phototransistor Detector
4.6.3 Properties of Phototransistor Detector
4.6.4 Application of Phototransistor Detector
4.7 Optocoupler: High Voltage Line Controlled Optically
4.8 Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Photoconductive Cell
4.8.1 Construction and Working Principle of LDR
4.8.2 Properties of Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
4.8.3 Applications of Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
4.9 Infrared Emitters
4.10 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
4.10.1 Properties of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
4.11 Comparison Between LED and LCD
Questions
5 Digital Electronics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Number System
5.2.1 Binary Numbers
5.2.2 Decimal to Binary Conversion
5.2.3 Octal Numbers
5.2.4 Hexadecimal Numbers
5.2.4.1 Hexadecimal—Binary Conversion
5.2.4.2 Hexadecimal—Octal Conversion
5.3 Binary Arithmetic
5.3.1 Binary Addition
5.3.2 Binary Subtraction
5.3.3 Binary Multiplication
5.3.4 Binary Division
5.4 1’s, 2’s, 9’s and 10’s Complements
5.4.1 1’s Complement Subtraction (M − N)
5.4.2 2’s Complement Subtraction (M − N)
5.4.3 9’s Complement Subtraction
5.4.4 10’s Complement Subtraction
5.5 Binary Codes
5.5.1 Binary-Coded Decimal System
5.5.2 Gray Code
5.5.3 Excess 3 Code
5.6 Boolean Algebra and Its Properties
5.6.1 Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
5.6.1.1 Boolean Addition (Logical ‘OR’)
5.6.1.2 Boolean Multiplication (Logical ‘AND’)
5.6.2 Properties of Boolean Algebra
5.6.2.1 Commutative Property
5.6.2.2 Associative Property
5.6.2.3 Distributive Property
5.6.3 De-Morgan’s Theorem
5.7 Logic Gates
5.7.1 OR Gate (A + B)
5.7.2 AND Gate (A.B)
5.7.3 NOT Gate (Inverter) (\overline{A})
5.7.4 Universal Gates
5.7.4.1 NAND Gate ( \overline{\bi A \cdot B} )
5.7.4.2 NOR Gate ( \overline{\bi A {\,+\,} B} )
5.7.5 Special Purpose Gates: EX-OR (A \oplus B) and EX-NOR (A \odot B) Gates
5.7.6 Implementation of Basic Gates and Special Purpose Gates Using Minimum Number of NAND and NOR Gate
5.8 Important Terms from Boolean Function
5.8.1 Minterms
5.8.2 Maxterms
5.8.3 Canonical Forms
5.8.4 Standard Form of Boolean Expressions
5.8.5 Sum of Product (SOP)
5.8.6 Product of Sums (POS)
5.8.7 Conversion Between Two Canonical Forms
5.9 Karnaugh Map or K-Map: Representation of Logical Functions
5.9.1 Pairs, Quads and Octets of K-Map
5.9.2 Steps to Simplify Logic Circuits by K-Map
Questions
6 Transducers
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Transducer Classification—Passive and Active
6.3 Basic Requirements of Transducer
6.4 Passive Transducers
6.4.1 Resistive Transducers
6.4.2 Potentiometer (POT)
6.4.3 Electrical Strain Gauge
6.4.3.1 Unbonded Strain Gauge
6.4.3.2 Bonded Strain Gauge
6.4.4 Resistance Thermometer
6.4.5 Thermistor
6.4.6 Capacitive Transducer
6.4.7 Inductive Transducer
6.4.8 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
6.4.9 Hall Effect
6.5 Active Transducer
6.5.1 Thermocouples
6.5.2 Piezoelectric Transducer
6.5.3 Photoelectric Transducer
Questions
7 Communication Systems
7.1 Communication
7.1.1 Communication and Waves
7.1.2 Communication System and Frequency Spectrum of EM Waves
7.2 Telecommunication Services
7.2.1 Transmission Paths
7.3 Analog and Digital Signals
7.4 Basic Principle of Modulation
7.4.1 Need of Modulation
7.4.2 Types of Modulation
7.5 Various Modulation Method
7.5.1 Analog Modulation
7.5.1.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
7.5.1.2 Angle Modulation
7.5.1.3 (a) Frequency Modulation (FM)
7.5.1.4 (b) Phase Modulation (PM)
7.5.2 Digital Modulation
7.5.2.1 Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK) or ON–OFF Keying (OOK)
7.5.2.2 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
7.5.2.3 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
7.5.3 Pulse Modulation
7.5.3.1 Sampling Theorem
7.5.3.2 A Transmitting Pulse-Modulated Wave
7.5.3.3 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
7.5.3.4 Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
7.5.3.5 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
7.6 Transmitter and Receiver
7.6.1 AM Transmitter
7.6.2 FM Transmitter
7.6.3 Concept of Superheterodyning and Intermediate Frequency
7.7 Satellite Communication
7.8 Radar System
7.8.1 Types of Radars
7.9 Data Transmission
7.9.1 Modem
7.9.2 Radio Transmission
7.9.3 Television Transmission
7.9.4 Microwave Transmission (Communication)
7.9.5 Optical Transmission
7.9.6 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Questions
8 Basic Electronics Experiments and Lab Manual
8.1 Experiment 1: Breadboard and Component Mounting
8.2 Experiment 2: Unknown Resistance Measurement
8.3 Experiment 3: pn Junction Diode Characteristics
8.4 Experiment 4: Zener Diode Characteristics
8.5 Experiment 5: I-V Characteristics of LED
8.6 Experiment 6: Characteristics of Light-Dependent Resistor, Photodiode, Phototransistor
8.7 Experiment 7: Half-Wave Rectifier
8.8 Experiment 8: Full-Wave Centre-Tapped Rectifier
8.9 Experiment 9: Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
8.10 Experiment 10: LED Colour Characteristics
8.11 Experiment 11: Transistor in Common Emitter Configurations
8.12 Experiment 12: JFET Characteristics
Appendix: Constants, Units and Symbols
Bibliography
Subject Index