Basic Concepts of Iron and Steel Making

✍ Scribed by Sujay Kumar Dutta; Yakshil B. Chokshi

• Publisher: Springer Nature
• Year: 2020
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 644
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book presents the fundamentals of iron and steel making, including the physical chemistry, thermodynamics and key concepts, while also discussing associated problems and solutions. It guides the reader through the production process from start to finish, covers the raw materials, and addresses the types of processes and reactions involved in both conventional and alternative methods. Though primarily intended as a textbook for students of metallurgical engineering, the book will also prove a useful reference for professionals and researchers working in this area.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
About the Authors
Ironmaking
1 Raw Materials
1.1 Introduction of Ferrous Extractive Metallurgy
1.2 Raw Materials
1.2.1 Iron Ore
1.2.1.1 Evaluation of Iron Ore
1.2.2 Metallurgical Coke
1.2.2.1 Functions of Coke
1.2.2.2 Quality of Coke
1.2.2.3 Preparation of Coke
Stamp-Charging Battery
Dry Cooling of Coke [5]
1.2.2.4 Solution for Long-Range Coking Coal Shortage
1.2.3 Fluxes
1.2.4 Air Supply
1.2.5 Problem of Indian’s Raw Materials
1.3 Agglomeration Processes
1.3.1 Sintering
1.3.2 Pelletization
1.3.2.1 Charge Materials’ Preparation
1.3.2.2 Functions of a Binder
Selection of Binder
1.3.2.3 Green Balls Formation
1.3.2.4 Indurations or Hardening
1.3.2.5 Theory of Bonding
1.3.2.6 Advantages of Pellets as Burden Material [10]
1.3.2.7 Cold-Bonded Pelletizing [9]
1.3.3 Briquetting
1.3.4 Nodulizing
1.3.5 New Feed Material (Iron Ore–Coal Composite Pellet)
1.3.5.1 Definition of Composite Pellets
1.3.5.2 Binders for Composite Pellets
1.3.5.3 Binding Mechanism for Composite Pellets
1.3.6 Testing of Agglomerates
1.3.6.1 Room Temperature Physical Properties
Drop Test
Porosity
Shatter Test
Abrasion Test
Compressive Strength Test
1.3.6.2 Reducibility
1.3.6.3 Physical Behaviour During Reduction at High Temperatures
Volume Change
Compressive Strength at High Temperature
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
2 Blast Furnace Process
2.1 Outline of Blast Furnace Process
2.2 Constructional Features of BF
2.3 Temperature Profile of BF
2.4 Function of Charged Materials in BF
2.5 Charging System of BF
2.5.1 Two-Bell Charging System
2.5.1.1 Distribution of Charge Materials to BF
2.5.1.2 Modification of Bell-Type Charging System
Two-Bell Type with Throat Armour Systems
Four-Bell System
2.5.2 Bell-Less Top (BLT) System
2.5.2.1 Compare BLT with Two-Bell System
2.6 Size of Charge Particles
Probable Questions
References
3 Blast Furnace Reactions
3.1 Blast Furnace Reactions
3.1.1 Tuyere Reactions or Combustion Zone Reactions
3.1.2 Reactions in the Stack
3.1.3 Bosh Reactions
3.1.4 Hearth Reactions
3.2 Slag
3.2.1 BF Slag
3.3 Modern Concept of BF Process
3.3.1 Lumpy or Granular Zone
3.3.2 Softening and Melting Zone
3.3.3 Dripping (or Dropping) Zone
3.3.4 Raceway Zone
3.3.5 Hearth Zone
3.4 Direct and Indirect Reduction
3.5 Tuyere Flame Temperature (TFT)
3.6 Raceway Adiabatic Flame Temperature (RAFT)
3.7 Modern Trends of BF Practice
3.7.1 Large Capacity of Furnaces
3.7.2 Burden Preparation
3.7.3 Better Distribution of Burden
3.7.4 Blast Temperature
3.7.5 Oxygen Enrichment of Blast
3.7.6 Humidification of Blast
3.7.7 Auxiliary Fuel Injection
3.7.8 Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI)
3.7.9 Lime Injection
3.7.10 High Top Pressure
3.8 Transfer of Silicon and Sulphur
3.9 Aerodynamics
3.10 BF Productivity
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
4 Furnace Auxiliaries
4.1 Cleaning of BF Gas
4.1.1 Dust Catcher
4.1.2 Primary Cleaning or Wet-Cleaning
4.1.2.1 Venture Washer
4.1.2.2 Stationary Spray Tower
4.1.2.3 Revolving Spray Tower
4.1.2.4 Centrifugal Machines
4.1.3 Secondary Cleaning
4.1.3.1 Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
4.1.3.2 High-Speed Disintegrators or Theisen Disintegrators
4.1.4 Dry-Cleaning
4.1.4.1 Electrical Precipitator (ESP)
4.1.4.2 Metallic Wool Pad Filter Bags [1]
4.1.5 Comparing of Dry- and Wet-Cleaning
4.2 Hot Blast Stoves
4.3 Blast Furnace Control
4.3.1 Control of Temperature
4.3.2 Control of Composition
4.4 BF Cooling Arrangements
Probable Questions
References
5 Operation of Blast Furnace
5.1 Operation of the Furnace
5.1.1 Blowing In
5.1.2 Banking
5.1.3 Blowing Out
5.2 Operational Problems of BF
5.2.1 Hot Spots
5.2.2 Scaffolding
5.2.3 Slipping
5.2.4 Breakouts
5.3 BF Refractory
Probable Questions
References
Alternate Methods of Ironmaking
References
6 Raw Materials for DR Processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Iron Ore
6.2.1 Characteristics of Iron Ore
6.2.1.1 Chemical Composition
6.2.1.2 Reduction Properties
6.2.1.3 Physical Characteristics
6.3 Coal
6.3.1 Reactivity
6.3.2 Ash Content
6.3.2.1 Ash Fusion Temperature
6.3.3 Volatile Matter and Sulphur Content
6.3.4 Coking and Swelling Indices
6.4 Natural Gas
6.4.1 Reforming Reaction
6.5 Other Raw Materials
6.6 Sizes of Raw Materials
6.7 Composite Pellets
Probable Questions
References
7 Sponge Iron
7.1 Introduction of Sponge Iron
7.2 Definition of Sponge Iron
7.3 Sponge Iron Processes
7.3.1 Coal-Based Processes
7.3.2 Gas-Based Processes
7.4 Reactions
7.4.1 Coal-Based
7.4.1.1 Reduction Reaction
7.4.1.2 Carburization
7.4.2 Gas-Based
7.4.2.1 Reduction Reaction
7.4.2.2 Carburization
7.5 Coal-Based Processes
7.5.1 Rotary Kiln Process
7.5.1.1 Equipment
7.5.1.2 Principle
7.5.1.3 Rate of Reduction
7.5.1.4 Problems of Rotary Kiln Process
7.5.2 Rotary Hearth Process
7.5.2.1 FASTMET Process
7.5.2.2 ITmk3 Process
7.6 Gas-Based Processes
7.6.1 Midrex Process
7.6.1.1 Equipment
7.6.1.2 Production of Reducing Gas
7.6.1.3 Reduction of Iron Ore
7.6.1.4 Cooling of Product
7.6.2 HyL Process
7.6.2.1 Process Technique
7.6.2.2 Production of Reducing Gas
7.6.2.3 Reducing Gas Temperature and Pressure
7.6.2.4 Gas Requirements
7.6.2.5 HyL III Process
7.6.2.6 HyL IV M Process
7.6.3 Purofer Process
7.6.4 FINMET Process
7.6.5 HIB Process
7.7 Forms of Sponge Iron
7.7.1 Cold Sponge Iron/DRI (CDRI)
7.7.2 Hot Sponge Iron/DRI (HDRI)
7.7.3 Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI)
7.8 Characteristics of Sponge Iron
7.8.1 Metallization
7.8.2 Carbon Content
7.8.3 Gangue Content
7.8.4 Impurities and Residual Elements
7.9 Quality of Sponge Iron
7.10 Re-oxidation of Sponge Iron
7.10.1 Preventive Measures
7.10.1.1 Natural Protection
7.10.1.2 Artificial Protection
7.11 Use of Sponge Iron
7.11.1 Use of Sponge Iron/DRI in BF
7.11.2 Use of Sponge Iron/DRI in LD/BOF
7.11.3 Use of Sponge Iron/DRI in EAF
7.11.4 Use of Sponge Iron/DRI in IMF
7.12 Environmental Benefits of Sponge Iron/DRI
7.13 Iron Carbide
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
8 Smelting Reduction Processes
8.1 Need of Smelting Reduction
8.1.1 Why Are Smelting Reduction Processes Required?
8.2 Significance of Smelting Reduction
8.3 Principle of SR Processes
8.4 Classification of SR Processes
8.4.1 Processes Utilizing Coal and Electricity
8.4.1.1 Single-Stage Process
8.4.1.2 Two Stages Process
8.4.2 Processes Utilizing Oxygen and Coal
8.4.2.1 Single-Stage Process
8.4.2.2 Two Stages Process
8.4.2.3 Three Stages Process
8.5 Advantages of Smelting Reduction Processes
8.6 Limitations of Smelting Reduction Processes
8.7 Major Smelting Reduction (SR) Processes
8.7.1 Corex Process
8.7.1.1 Description
8.7.1.2 Reactions
8.7.1.3 Efficiency and Advantages [6]
8.7.1.4 Process Economy
8.7.1.5 Environmental Aspects
8.7.1.6 Use of Export Gas
8.7.1.7 Relevance Under Indian Condition
8.7.2 Romelt Process
8.7.2.1 Description
8.7.2.2 Important Features for Romelt Process
8.7.3 DIOS Process
8.7.4 HIsmelt Process
8.7.5 AusIron Process
8.7.6 FINEX Process
8.7.7 FASTMELT Process
Probable Questions
References
9 Alternate Ironmaking
9.1 Low Shaft Furnace
9.2 Mini-blast Furnace
9.3 Charcoal Blast Furnace
9.4 Electrothermal Process
9.5 ELRED Process
9.6 KR Process
Probable Questions
References
Physical Chemistry of Ironmaking
10 Thermodynamics of Reduction
10.1 Reduction of Metal Oxide
10.2 Phase Stability Diagrams
10.2.1 Fe–C–O System
10.2.2 Fe–H–O System
10.3 Reduction of Iron Oxides
10.3.1 Reduction by Carbon Monoxide
10.3.2 Reduction by CO and H2 Mixtures
10.4 Reaction in BF
10.4.1 Gas Concentration Within Stack of BF
10.4.2 Raceway Zone
10.4.3 Bosh and Hearth
10.4.3.1 Silicon Reaction
10.4.3.2 Sulphur Reaction
10.4.3.3 Manganese Reaction
10.5 Carbon Deposition on Sponge Iron
10.6 Mechanism of Smelting Reduction of Iron Oxides
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
11 Kinetics
11.1 Reduction by Gases
11.1.1 Interfacial Reaction Control
11.1.2 Kinetics of Solid–Solid Reaction
11.1.3 Reduction of Iron Oxides by CO and H2
11.2 Gasification of Carbon
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
Steelmaking
12 Historical Steelmaking
12.1 Introduction of Steelmaking
12.2 Earlier Processes
12.2.1 Wrought Ironmaking
12.2.2 Cementation Process
12.2.3 Crucible Process
12.3 Modern Steelmaking
12.4 Various Steelmaking Routes
12.5 Sources of Heat in Steelmaking
12.6 Slag
12.7 Ternary Diagram
12.8 Basic Differences
12.8.1 Difference Between Cast Iron and Steel
12.8.2 Difference Between Plain Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel
12.8.3 Difference Between Alloy Steel and Ferro-Alloy
Probable Questions
References
13 Raw Materials for Steelmaking
13.1 Raw Materials
13.2 Sources of Metallic Iron
13.2.1 Primary Sources of Metallic Iron
13.2.2 Secondary Sources of Metallic Iron
13.2.2.1 Scrap
13.2.2.2 Sponge Iron/DRI/HBI
13.2.2.3 Iron Carbide
13.3 Oxidizing Agents
13.3.1 Deoxidizers and Alloy Additions
13.4 Fluxes
13.5 Furnace Refractory
13.6 Sources of Heat
13.6.1 Heat Balance of Steelmaking Process
13.7 Pre-treatment of Hot Metal
13.7.1 De-siliconization
13.7.2 De-sulphurization
13.7.3 De-phosphorization
13.7.4 Advantages of Pre-treatment to Hot Metal
Probable Questions
References
14 Steelmaking Processes
14.1 Acid Bessemer Process
14.1.1 Refining
14.1.2 Air Blowing
14.1.3 Heat Balance
14.2 Basic Bessemer Process
14.2.1 Refining
14.2.2 Air Blowing
14.2.3 Heat Balance
14.2.4 Limitations
14.3 Open-Hearth Process
14.3.1 Charging
14.3.2 Melting
14.3.3 Refining
14.3.4 Finishing
14.3.5 Modification of Open-Hearth Furnace
14.3.5.1 Submerged Injection Process (SIP)
14.3.5.2 Twin-Hearth Process
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
15 Oxygen Steelmaking Processes
15.1 LD Process
15.1.1 Design of Converter
15.1.2 Lance
15.1.3 Oxygen Lancing
15.1.3.1 Oxygen Jet
15.1.3.2 Oxygen Jet Momentum
15.1.4 Mechanism of Refining
15.1.5 Characteristic of Slag
15.1.6 Mechanism of Carbon Reaction
15.1.7 Manganese Reaction
15.1.8 Phosphorous Reaction
15.1.9 Sulphur Reaction
15.1.10 Control of Carbon and Phosphorus Reactions
15.1.11 Process Controlling Factors
15.1.12 Economics of Process
15.1.13 Operating Results/Performance
15.1.14 Lining of Converter
15.1.15 Pollution Control
15.2 Oxygen Bottom Blowing Processes
15.2.1 OBM
15.2.2 LWS
15.3 LD-AC/OLP
15.4 Rotary Oxygen Processes
15.4.1 Kaldo Process
15.4.2 Rotor Process
15.5 New Developments in Oxygen Steelmaking Processes
15.5.1 Mixing by Inert Gas Through Porous Bricks
15.5.1.1 LBE Process
15.5.2 Mixing by Inert Gas Through Tuyeres
15.5.2.1 LD-KG Process
15.5.3 Combined Blowing Processes
15.5.3.1 KMS Process
15.5.3.2 LD-HC Process
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
16 Electric Furnace Processes
16.1 Introduction of Electric Furnaces
16.2 Electric Arc Furnace
16.2.1 Main Parts of EAF
16.2.1.1 Furnace Body
16.2.1.2 Roof
16.2.1.3 Electrode
16.2.1.4 Gears for Furnace Body Movements
16.2.1.5 Electrical Equipment
16.2.1.6 Power Rating and Consumption
16.2.2 Process
16.2.2.1 Fettling of the Furnace
16.2.2.2 Charging
16.2.2.3 Melting
16.2.2.4 Refining
16.2.2.5 Slag-off and Making Reducing Slag
16.2.2.6 Energy Balance
16.2.2.7 GHG Emissions
16.2.3 Design of Furnace
16.2.3.1 Electrode Diameter
16.2.3.2 Energy for Melting
16.2.3.3 Heat Losses by Radiation and Other
16.3 Further Developments in EAF
16.3.1 Design Aspect
16.3.1.1 Rapid Melting Technology
16.3.1.2 Water-Cooled Panels
16.3.1.3 Blowing Oxygen and Carbon Injection
16.3.1.4 Oxy-Fuel Burners
16.3.1.5 Hot Heel Operation
16.3.1.6 Bottom Stirring
16.3.1.7 Eccentric Bottom Tapping
16.3.1.8 Automatic Alloy Feeder
16.3.1.9 Coated Electrode
16.3.1.10 Fifth Hole
16.3.1.11 Switch Gear
16.3.1.12 Emission and Noise Control
16.3.2 Process Modifications
16.3.2.1 Foams Slag Practice
16.3.2.2 Blowing Oxygen
16.3.2.3 Carbon Injection
16.3.2.4 Scrap Pre-heating
16.3.2.5 Hot Tundish and Ladle
16.3.2.6 Coupling with Ladle Furnace
16.3.2.7 Process Automation
16.3.3 Charge Modifications
16.3.3.1 Use of Sponge Iron
16.3.3.2 Use of Hot Sponge Iron
16.3.3.3 Use of Hot Metal in EAF
16.3.3.4 Use of Iron Carbide in EAF
16.4 DC Arc Furnace
16.4.1 Principle
16.4.2 Charging
16.4.3 Operation
16.4.4 Difference Between AC and DC
16.5 Induction Melting Furnace (IMF)
16.5.1 Principle
16.5.2 Raw Materials
16.5.3 Electromotive Force
16.5.4 Cooling System
16.5.5 Operation
16.5.6 Merit and Limitation
16.5.7 Difference Between EAF Versus IMF
16.5.8 Applications
16.6 Quality Steel Production by Using Sponge Iron
16.6.1 Charging
16.6.2 Melting
16.6.2.1 Rate of Melting [31]
16.6.2.2 Iron Yield
16.6.3 Mechanism of Nitrogen Removal
16.6.4 Product Characteristics
16.6.5 Advantages of Using Sponge Iron in EAF
16.7 Use of Hot Metal in EAF
16.7.1 CONARC Process
16.7.1.1 Charging
16.7.1.2 Operation
16.7.2 EOF Process
16.7.3 ECOARC Process
16.7.4 CONSTEEL Process
16.7.5 FASTEEL Process
16.7.6 Shaft Furnace Technology
16.7.6.1 Single Shaft Furnace
16.7.6.2 Double Shaft Furnace
16.7.6.3 Finger Shaft Furnace
16.8 Stainless Steel Production
16.8.1 Earlier Method
16.8.2 Rustless Process
16.8.3 Rapid Process
16.8.4 New De-carburization Techniques
16.8.4.1 Duplex Process
Argon–Oxygen–De-carburization (AOD)
Vacuum–Oxygen–De-carburization (VOD)
16.8.4.2 Triplex Process
EAF-ASM-LF
UHPF-OTBC-VOD
IMF-MRK-LF
KMS.S-K.OBM.S-VOD
16.8.5 Stainless Steel Production by IMF
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
17 Secondary Steelmaking
17.1 Introduction of Secondary Steelmaking
17.2 Ladle Furnace (LF)
17.2.1 ASEA-SKF Furnace
17.3 De-gassing Processes
17.3.1 Gases in Liquid Steel
17.3.2 Vacuum De-gassing
17.3.2.1 Ladle De-gassing
Steel Homogenization with Gas Stirring
Vacuum De-gassing (VD) Process
Vacuum Arc De-gassing (VAD) Process
17.3.2.2 Stream De-gassing
17.3.2.3 Circulation De-gassing
RH De-gassing Process
DH De-gassing Process
17.3.2.4 De-sulphurization During Vacuum De-gassing
17.4 Injection Ladle Metallurgy
17.4.1 Submerge Injection Through Lance
17.4.2 Cored Wire Injection
17.4.3 Efficiency of Calcium
17.5 De-oxidation of Steel
17.5.1 Precipitation De-oxidation
17.5.2 Diffusion De-oxidation
17.6 Inclusion and Its Control
17.6.1 Classification of Non-metallic Inclusions
17.6.1.1 Inclusion of Manganese Sulphides
17.6.2 Inclusion Control
17.6.2.1 Treatment of Liquid Steel with Calcium
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
18 Casting Pit Practice
18.1 Introduction of Casting Pit Practice
18.2 Teeming Ladle
18.3 Ingot Mould
18.4 Hot Top
18.5 Solidification of Steel
18.5.1 Killed Steels
18.5.2 Semi-killed Steels
18.5.3 Rimming Steels
18.5.4 Capped Steels
18.5.5 Mechanism of Solidification
18.6 Ingot Defects
18.6.1 Pipe Formation
18.6.2 Blow Holes
18.6.3 Columnar Structure
18.6.4 Segregation
18.6.5 Non-metallic Inclusions
18.6.6 Internal Rupture and Hairline Cracking
18.6.7 Surface Defects
18.6.7.1 Ingot Cracks
18.6.7.2 Ingot Cracks Other Surface Defects [1]
18.7 Teeming Methods
Probable Questions
References
19 Continuous Casting (CONCAST)
19.1 Introduction of CONCAST
19.2 Equipments for CONCAST
19.2.1 Ladle
19.2.2 Tundish
19.2.3 Mould
19.2.4 False Bottom or Dummy Plug Bar
19.2.5 Withdrawal Rolls
19.2.6 Cooling Sprays
19.3 Principle
19.4 Types of Casters
19.5 Mould Powder
19.5.1 Powder Consumption
19.5.2 Slag Films
19.6 Merits of CONCAST
19.7 Improvements of CONCAST
19.7.1 Remotely Adjustable Moulds (RAM)
19.7.2 Ladle Slag Detection System
19.7.3 Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN)
19.7.4 Electromagnetic Stirring (EMS)
19.7.5 Electromagnetic Brakers (EMBR)
19.7.6 Argon Purging Through Tundish Mono-Block Stopper (MBS)
19.8 Quality Control in CONCAST
19.8.1 Cleanliness
19.8.2 Chemical Homogeneity
19.8.3 Porosity and Cracks
19.8.4 Desired Shape
19.9 Further Developments of CONCAST Practices
19.9.1 Near-Net-Shape (NNS) Casting
19.9.2 Horizontal Continuous Casting (HCC)
19.9.3 Direct Rolling (ISP and CSP)
Probable Questions
References
Thermodynamics and Physical Chemistry of Steelmaking
20 Thermodynamics
20.1 Physical Chemistry of Steelmaking
20.1.1 Oxidizing Power of Slag
20.1.2 Sulphide Capacity of Slag
20.2 Fundamental Thermodynamic Relations
20.2.1 Carbon in Iron–Carbon Alloys
20.2.2 Oxygen in Iron
20.3 Thermodynamics of Refining
20.3.1 Carbon–Oxygen Equilibrium Reaction
20.3.1.1 Mechanism of Carbon–Oxygen Reaction in Pneumatic Processes
20.3.1.2 Mechanism of Carbon–Oxygen Reaction in Open-Hearth Process
20.3.2 Silicon Reaction
20.3.3 Manganese Reaction
20.3.3.1 Ionic Theory of Manganese Transfer
20.3.4 Phosphorous Reaction
20.3.5 Sulphur Reaction
20.3.5.1 Molecular Theory
20.3.5.2 Ionic Theory
20.4 Thermodynamics of De-oxidation of Steel
20.4.1 Thermodynamics for Oxygen in Molten Steel
20.4.2 De-oxidation Equilibrium
20.5 Thermodynamics of De-sulphurization
20.6 Thermodynamics of Chromium Reactions
20.7 Thermodynamics of Vacuum Degassing
20.7.1 Hydrogen During Vacuum
20.7.2 Nitrogen During Vacuum
20.7.3 Oxygen During Vacuum
20.7.4 De-sulphurization During Vacuum
Probable Questions
Examples
Problems
References
Pollution in Iron and Steel Industries
21 Carbon Foot Prints for Iron and Steel Production
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Iron and Steel Sector
21.3 Estimation of CO2 Emissions
21.3.1 One Method
21.3.1.1 Coke Production
21.3.1.2 Sinter Production
21.3.1.3 Carbon Combustion
21.3.1.4 Lime Production
21.3.1.5 Iron and Steel Production
21.3.1.6 Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) Production
21.3.2 Another Methods
21.4 Product and by-Product
21.5 Summaries
Probable Questions
References
Appendix_1
Appendix_2
Appendix_3
Appendix_4
Appendix_5