Air pollution and health effects

✍ Scribed by Nadadur, Srikanth S(Editor);Hollingsworth, John W(Editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2015
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 448
• Series: Molecular and integrative toxicology
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Exposure to ambient air pollutants, both indoors and outdoors has been associated with the exacerbation and also in the etiology of diverse human diseases. This book offers an overview of our current understanding of air pollution health risks and how this knowledge is being used in the regulatory, therapeutic intervention measures to protect the public health and reduce the disease burden caused by acute and long-term exposure to air pollutants.

Air Pollution and Health Effectsprovides readers with a comprehensive understanding of air pollution health risks, morbidity and the global disease burden, whilst also delivering critical review on state of the art research so as to gain a fundamental understanding of the biological mechanisms involved in the etiology of air pollution-induced diseases. Chapters range from pregnancy outcomes and pre-term birth, carcinogens in the ambient aerosol and the health consequences of indoor biomass burning. Special emphasis is placed on regional and local air pollution and its impact on global health along with suitable preventive and interventional measures.

With contributions from international experts in the field this volume is a valuable guide for researchers and clinicians in toxicology, medicine and public health as well as industry and government regulatory scientists involved in health protection.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface......Page 6
References......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
Contributors......Page 12
About the Editors......Page 16
1.1 Introduction......Page 17
1.3.1 Concentrations......Page 18
1.3.2 Oxidative Potential......Page 21
1.4.1.1 Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOC)......Page 22
Gaseous Reactions......Page 23
Aqueous Reactions......Page 24
1.4.1.3 Monoterpene Oxidation......Page 25
1.4.1.4 Mechanism of Terpene Atmospheric Oxidation......Page 27
1.4.3 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in SOA......Page 30
1.5 In Situ ROS Formation......Page 32
References......Page 34
2.1 Introduction......Page 41
2.3 Epidemiological Findings......Page 43
2.3.1 Fertility and Fecundability......Page 44
2.3.2 Low Vitamin D and Immune System Alterations......Page 45
2.3.3 Gestational Outcomes......Page 46
2.3.3.2 Preterm Birth, Intrauterine and Neonatal Mortality......Page 47
2.3.3.4 Preeclampsia......Page 48
2.3.5 Reproductive System Cancer......Page 49
2.4 Experimental Evidence......Page 50
2.5 Biological Mechanisms......Page 53
2.6 Prevention......Page 56
References......Page 58
3.1 Introduction......Page 67
3.2 Long Term and Short Term Importance of Pregnancy Outcomes......Page 69
3.3 A Review of Previous Research......Page 70
3.3.1.2 Preterm Birth......Page 72
3.3.2.1 Continuous Birth Weight......Page 75
3.3.2.2 Low Birth Weight......Page 78
3.3.3.1 Growth Restriction......Page 79
3.3.3.2 Term Low Birth Weight......Page 81
3.3.4.2 Ozone......Page 82
3.3.4.3 Coarse Particulate Matter......Page 83
3.3.4.5 Nitrogen Dioxide......Page 84
3.3.4.7 Traffic-Related Air Pollutants......Page 85
3.4 Biological Mechanisms......Page 86
3.5.2 Exposure Assessment......Page 88
3.5.3 Personal Exposure Assessment......Page 92
3.5.4 Spatial Resolution......Page 93
3.5.5 Windows of Vulnerability......Page 94
3.5.6 Multiple Pollutants......Page 96
3.5.7 Interactions with Other Exposures and Risk Factors......Page 97
3.6 Future Directions for Research and Conclusions......Page 98
References......Page 99
4.1 Introduction......Page 108
4.3 Particulate Matter......Page 110
4.3.1 Ozone......Page 114
4.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide......Page 116
4.4 Genetic Influences on the Response to Pollutants Relevant to Asthma......Page 117
4.5 Potential Therapeutic Interventions for Pollutant-­Induced Airway Disease......Page 119
4.6 Summary......Page 121
References......Page 122
5.1 Introduction......Page 133
5.2 Pollution and COPD: Historical Perspectives......Page 134
5.3 The Role of Outdoor Air Pollutants in COPD......Page 135
5.4 Indoor Air Pollutants and COPD......Page 136
5.5 Occupational Exposure and COPD......Page 137
5.6 Anatomical Considerations......Page 138
5.7.1 Macrophages......Page 140
5.7.2 Neutrophils......Page 142
5.7.3 Dendritic Cells......Page 144
5.7.4 Lymphocytes......Page 145
5.7.5 Epithelial Cells......Page 146
5.8 Molecular Mechanisms of Air Pollutant-Induced Lung Damage in COPD......Page 147
5.8.2 Role of Oxidative Stress......Page 148
5.8.3 Mechanisms and Mediators of Apoptosis and Autophagy......Page 150
5.8.4 Proteinases and Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Interactions......Page 151
5.8.5 Repair Mechanisms......Page 152
5.9 Summary and Future Projections......Page 153
References......Page 154
6.1 Introduction......Page 164
6.2 Formaldehyde......Page 165
6.2.1 Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion (ADME)......Page 166
6.2.2 Carcinogenic Effects of Formaldehyde......Page 167
6.2.3.1 Mutations......Page 168
6.2.3.3 Genotoxicity Mechanisms......Page 169
6.3 Benzene......Page 170
6.3.1 Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion (ADME)......Page 171
6.3.2 Carcinogenic Effects of Benzene......Page 172
6.3.3 Carcinogenic Mechanisms......Page 173
6.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)......Page 175
6.4.1 Absorption, Metabolism and Excretion of PAHs......Page 177
6.4.2 Carcinogenic Effects of PAHs......Page 178
6.4.3 Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis......Page 179
6.6 Second Hand Smoke/Environmental Tobacco Smoke......Page 181
6.6.1 Mechanisms of SHS-Induced Carcinogenesis......Page 184
6.7 Summary......Page 185
References......Page 187
7.1.1 Air Pollutants and Their Impact on Human Health......Page 198
7.2 Molecular Epidemiology and Biomarkers......Page 201
7.2.1 Biomarkers of Exposure......Page 202
7.2.1.1 Bulky DNA Adducts......Page 203
7.2.1.2 Oxidative Damage Markers......Page 204
7.2.2 Biomarkers of Effect......Page 206
7.2.2.1 Chromosomal Aberrations......Page 207
7.2.2.2 Sperm DNA Fragmentation......Page 209
7.2.3 Biomarkers of Susceptibility......Page 210
7.2.4 Omics Biomarkers......Page 211
7.2.4.1 mRNA Expression......Page 212
7.2.4.2 DNA Methylation......Page 213
7.2.4.3 microRNA Expression......Page 214
7.3 Conclusions......Page 215
References......Page 216
8.1 Introduction......Page 226
8.2.1 Studies Linking Air-Pollution with Prevalence of Diabetes......Page 227
8.2.3 Studies Linking Air Pollution and DM Morbidity/Mortality......Page 231
8.3 Insights from Studies on Organ Systems in Air ­Pollution-­Mediated Diabetes/Metabolic Syndrome......Page 232
8.3.1 Visceral Adipose Tissue (VAT) Inflammation and Oxidative Stress......Page 235
8.3.2 The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Oxidative Stress in Liver, Lung, and Adipose Tissue......Page 236
8.3.4 Central Nervous System as an Integrator of Metabolic Effects with PM......Page 239
8.4.1 Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) and Nucleotide Oligomerization Domain Receptors (NLRs) as Particulate Matter Sensors......Page 241
8.4.2 CC-Chemokine Receptor 2 (CCR2) as a Relevant Pathway Responsible for Immune Cell Recruitment......Page 243
8.5 Summaries and Future Directions......Page 246
References......Page 248
9.1 Introduction......Page 253
9.2.1 Human Studies Reveal Associations Between Exposure to Air Pollutants and Atherosclerosis......Page 255
9.2.2 Animal Studies Support a Causality Link......Page 257
9.3.1 Diet......Page 263
9.3.2 Particle Size and Composition......Page 264
9.4.1 Role of ROS and Inflammation......Page 265
9.4.2 Role of the Lungs in Mediating Systemic Effects......Page 268
9.5 Effects on Lipids: A Potential Missing Link......Page 269
9.6 Novel Biomarkers of Air Pollution-Induced Cardiovascular Effects......Page 271
9.7 Conclusions......Page 272
References......Page 273
10.1.1 Particulate Matter Size Categories......Page 280
10.1.2 Particle Deposition......Page 283
10.1.3 Particle Disposition......Page 285
10.2 Animal Studies......Page 286
10.2.1 Particle Translocation......Page 287
10.2.2 CNS Inflammation......Page 289
10.2.3 Behavioral Changes......Page 290
10.3.1 Changes in Cognition and Behavior in Association with Exposure......Page 291
10.4 Conclusions......Page 294
References......Page 295
11.1 Introduction......Page 300
11.2 Ambient Particulate Matter......Page 302
11.2.1.1 Barrier Function/Epithelial Cells......Page 303
11.2.1.2 Macrophages......Page 304
11.2.2 PM and the Adaptive Immune System......Page 306
11.3.1.1 Lung Epithelial Cells......Page 308
11.3.1.2 Myeloid Immune Cells......Page 309
11.3.2.1 Bacteria and Bacterial Products......Page 310
11.3.2.2 Viral Infection......Page 311
11.3.3 Mechanistic Insights......Page 312
11.4.1 Ozone and Innate Immunity......Page 313
11.4.1.2 Myeloid Immune Cells......Page 314
Complement......Page 317
11.4.2 Ozone and Adaptive Immunity......Page 318
References......Page 320
12.1 Introduction......Page 333
12.2 Identification of Gene-Environment Interactions......Page 334
12.2.1 An Example of Genetic Polymorphism Modifying the Effect of AP......Page 336
12.3 Modification of AP Effect on Respiratory Outcomes by Genetic Factors......Page 338
12.3.1.1 Overview......Page 339
12.3.1.2 Genes and the Commonly Studied Polymorphism......Page 341
12.3.1.3 Gene, AP on Respiratory Health Outcomes......Page 342
12.3.2 Inflammatory Genes and AP......Page 345
12.4.1 Gene, AP, and CVD: Human Studies......Page 347
12.4.2 Summary......Page 349
12.5 Gene, AP and Non Cardio-respiratory Health Outcomes......Page 350
12.6 AP and Epigenetics......Page 351
12.6.1 AP and Methylation......Page 352
12.6.2 AP, Histone Modification and miRNA......Page 353
12.7 Challenges and Limitations......Page 354
References......Page 356
13.1 Introduction......Page 364
13.2 Pollution Levels and Emission Trends......Page 366
13.3 Criteria Air Pollutants in Developing Countries......Page 369
13.3.1 Lead......Page 370
13.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide......Page 371
13.3.3 Nitrogen Dioxide......Page 372
13.3.4 Carbon Monoxide......Page 373
13.3.5 Ozone......Page 374
13.4.1 Industrial Emissions Especially from Coal Combustion......Page 375
13.4.2 Open Burning......Page 377
13.4.3 Low Quality Gasoline and Diesel......Page 378
13.5 Disease Burdens Attributable to Air Pollution in Developing Countries......Page 380
13.5.1 Concentration-Response Relationship......Page 381
13.6 Historical Lessons and Recommendations......Page 383
References......Page 385
14.1 Introduction......Page 390
14.2 Mechanisms......Page 392
14.4 Acute Lower Respiratory Infection (Childhood Pneumonia)......Page 393
14.5 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease......Page 394
14.6 Lung Cancer......Page 397
14.7 Cataracts......Page 398
14.8 Cardiovascular Disease......Page 399
14.9.1 Tuberculosis......Page 401
14.9.2 Adult Acute Lower Respiratory Infection (Pneumonia)......Page 402
14.9.3 Asthma......Page 403
14.10 Research Gaps......Page 404
14.11 Opportunities for Intervention......Page 405
References......Page 406
15.1 Introduction......Page 412
15.2 A Brief Legislative History of the Clean Air Act......Page 416
15.3 The Current NAAQS Process......Page 417
15.4 Integrated Science Assessments......Page 419
15.4.1.1 From Association to Causation......Page 420
15.4.1.2 Determination of Causality......Page 423
15.4.2 Public Health Impact......Page 424
15.5 Translating the Science into Policy......Page 427
15.6 Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)......Page 428
15.8 The Role of Evolving Science in Shaping Future Air Quality Policy......Page 429
15.8.1 An Evolving Approach to Managing Air Quality in the U.S......Page 432
15.8.2 The Multipollutant, Risk-Based Approach to Managing Air Quality......Page 434
15.8.3 Characterizing Risk Among Certain Populations......Page 435
15.8.3.2 Accounting for Specific Populations When Developing Air Quality Rules......Page 436
15.8.4 Characterizing the Human Health Burden Associated with Recent and Future Levels of Air Pollution......Page 438
15.9.1 How Do Pollutants, and Species of Pollutants, Interact to Affect Population Risk?......Page 440
15.9.3 How Are Acute and Chronic Air Pollution Effects Related?......Page 441
15.10 Conclusion......Page 442
References......Page 443
Index......Page 446