Agro-Processing and Food Engineering: Operational and Application Aspects

✍ Scribed by Harish Kumar Sharma (editor), Navneet Kumar (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2022
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 590
• Edition: 1st ed. 2022
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This textbook highlights the engineering fundamentals and processing aspects of agricultural produce and covers important aspects of agro-processing and food engineering in one place. The chapters cover material handling, drying, size reduction process, mixing and forming, cleaning and separation, storage, and processing of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruit and vegetables, and their products. The book’s contents are systematically designed to provide a balanced overview of agro-processing techniques from the basic concepts to the case study, handling of the materials, and different unit operations. The systematic and simple elaboration of scientific aspects will make it unique and help to develop skills in the field. Many illustrations in form of diagrams/charts/pictures provide a clear understanding. Solved numerical problems, which are given in the chapters, will provide students clarity in conceptualizing the basics. The book covers the syllabus related to agro-processing and food engineering at the undergraduate and postgraduate level in various universities, agricultural universities, allied institutes, and colleges across the globe.  It will be extremely beneficial to students as it covers the most important and relevant topics, which are hardly covered in any other single compilation and published textbooks. It would be a good textbook for universities, agricultural universities, institutes, and colleges running courses in agriculture, horticulture, postharvest technology, process and food engineering, food engineering, food engineering and technology, food technology, food science, and food and nutrition.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Agro Processing: Scope and Importance
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Agro-Processing Industries
1.3 Cereal Industry
1.4 Fruit and Vegetable Industry
1.5 Fish Industry
1.6 Livestock Industry and Poultry Industry
1.7 Sugarcane Industry
1.8 Pulse Industry
1.9 Tea Industry
1.10 Oilseed Industry
1.11 Spice Industry
1.12 Dairy Industry
1.13 Exercise
References
2: Engineering Properties of Foods
2.1 Size
2.1.1 Methods of Size Measurement
2.1.1.1 Projected Area Method
2.1.1.2 Micrometer Measurement
2.1.1.3 Measurement of Particle Size of Particulate Foods
2.2 Shape
2.2.1 Sphericity
2.2.2 Aspect Ratio
2.2.3 Radius of Curvature
2.2.4 Roundness
2.3 Volume
2.3.1 Types of Volume
2.3.1.1 Solid Volume
2.3.1.2 Apparent Volume
2.3.1.3 Bulk Volume
2.3.2 Measurement of Volume
2.3.2.1 Estimation of Volume of Regularly Shaped Samples
2.3.2.2 Determination of Volume by Solid Displacement Method
2.3.2.3 Liquid Displacement Method
2.3.2.4 Gas Displacement Method
2.4 Density
2.4.1 Solid Density
2.4.1.1 True Density
2.4.1.2 Particle Density (PD)
2.4.1.3 Apparent Density
2.4.1.4 Bulk Density (BD)
2.4.2 Liquid Density
2.5 Porosity
2.5.1 Measurement of Porosity
2.5.1.1 Direct Method
2.5.1.2 Optical Microscopic Method
2.5.1.3 Density Method
Apparent Porosity
Bulk Porosity
2.6 Frictional Properties
2.6.1 Angle of Repose
2.6.2 Coefficient of Frictions
2.6.2.1 Coefficient of External Friction
2.6.2.2 Coefficient of Internal Friction
2.7 Water Activity
2.7.1 Water Activity Measurement Methods
2.7.1.1 Dew Point Method
2.7.1.2 Capacitive Sensor Method
2.7.1.3 Vapor Pressure Method
2.7.1.4 Freezing Point Depression Method
2.7.1.5 Thermocouple Psychrometer Method
2.7.1.6 Isopiestic Method
2.7.2 Water Activity Analyzer
2.8 Rheological Properties of Foods
2.8.1 Rheology of Solids
2.8.2 Viscoelastic Behavior
2.8.2.1 Stress Relaxation Test
2.8.3 Rheological Models
2.8.4 Texture
2.8.4.1 TPA and Texture Analyzer
2.8.5 Rheology of Liquid Foods
2.8.5.1 Viscous Fluid
2.8.5.2 Shear-Thinning (Pseudoplastic) Fluids
2.8.5.3 Shear-Thickening (Dilatant) Fluids
2.8.5.4 Plastic Fluids
2.8.5.5 Time-Dependent Fluid
2.9 Colors
2.9.1 Color Models and Space
2.9.1.1 Spectral Sensitivity
2.9.1.2 Standard Observer
2.9.1.3 Tristimulus Values
2.9.1.4 Chromaticity Coordinates
2.9.1.5 Hunter L, a, b Color Scale
2.9.1.6 CIELAB Color Scale
2.9.1.7 Munsell Color System
2.9.1.8 Other Color Spaces
2.9.2 Estimation of Important Color Parameters
2.9.2.1 Browning Index
2.9.2.2 Whiteness Index
2.9.2.3 Yellowness Index
2.9.3 Color Measurement Working Principle
2.9.3.1 Colorimeter with 8 Illumination
2.9.3.2 Colorimeter with 45 Annular Illumination
2.10 Thermal Properties
2.10.1 Thermal Conductivity
2.10.1.1 Prediction of Thermal Conductivity Using Compositional Criteria
2.10.1.2 Determination of Thermal Conductivity Under Steady State
Longitudinal Heat Flow Method
Radial Heat Flow Methods
Concentric Cylinder Method
Sphere with Central Heating Source Method
2.10.1.3 Determination of Thermal Conductivity Under Unsteady State
2.10.2 Specific Heat
2.10.2.1 Measurement of Specific Heat
2.10.3 Thermal Diffusivity
2.10.4 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)
References
3: Material Handling and Transportation Devices
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Principles of Material Handling Devices
3.1.2 Importance of Material Handling Devices
3.1.3 Selection Criteria for Conveyor Systems
3.2 Powerless Material Handling Devices
3.2.1 Gravity Conveyors
3.2.2 Functions and Design Considerations
3.2.3 Advantages
3.3 Powered Conveyors
3.3.1 Roller Conveyors
3.3.1.1 Belt Driven Roller Conveyors
3.3.1.2 Toothed Belt Driven Roller Conveyors
3.3.1.3 Chain Driven Roller Conveyors
3.3.2 Belt Conveyor
3.3.3 Chain Conveyors
3.3.4 Vibratory Conveyor
3.3.4.1 Conveying Principles
3.3.4.2 Design Limitations
3.3.5 Pneumatic Conveying
3.3.5.1 Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying Technique
Dense Phase Pressure Conveying
Dense Phase Vacuum Conveying (DPVC)
3.3.5.2 Dilute Phase Pneumatic Conveying
Dilute Phase Pressure Conveying
Dilute Phase Vacuum Conveying (DPVC)
3.3.6 Screw Conveyor (SC)
3.3.6.1 Types of Screw Conveyors
Horizontal Screw Conveyors (HSC)
Inclined Screw Conveyors (ISC)
Shaftless Screw Conveyors
Vertical Screw Conveyors
3.3.7 Hydraulic Conveying
3.3.8 Bucket Elevators
3.4 Other Movable Material Handling Devices
3.4.1 Cranes
3.4.2 Hoist
3.4.3 Trucks
3.5 Transportation of Fluids
3.5.1 Pumps
3.5.1.1 Classification of Pumps
Reciprocating Pumps
Piston Pump
Plunger Pump
Diaphragm Pump
Rotary Pumps
Spur Gear Pump
Internal Gear Pump
Centrifugal Pump
3.5.2 Valves
3.5.2.1 Butterfly Valves
3.5.2.2 Single and Double Seat Valves
3.5.2.3 Diaphragm Valves
3.5.2.4 Ball Valves
3.5.2.5 Other Valves
3.5.3 Pipes
3.5.4 Pipe Fitting and Joints
3.5.4.1 Elbow
3.5.4.2 Bend
3.5.4.3 Tee
3.5.4.4 Reducers
3.5.4.5 Union
3.5.4.6 Coupling
3.5.4.7 Nipple
3.6 Hygienic Considerations During Material Handling
3.7 Exercise
References
4: Design of Material Handling Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Belt Conveyor
4.2.1 Types of Belt Conveyors
4.2.2 Selection of Belt Conveyors
4.2.3 Design of Belt Conveyor
4.2.3.1 Width of Conveyor Belt
4.2.3.2 Conveyor Inclination
4.2.3.3 Width of Material on Conveyor Belt
4.2.3.4 Roller Diameter
4.2.3.5 Length of Conveyor Belt
4.2.3.6 Conveyor Pulley Diameter
4.2.4 Capacity of Belt Conveyor
4.2.4.1 Cross-Sectional Area of Single Horizontal Roller Belt Conveyor
4.2.4.2 Cross-Sectional Area of Triple Roller Troughed Belt Conveyor
4.2.4.3 Estimation of Belt Conveyor Capacity
4.2.5 Speed of Belt
4.2.6 Driving Force in Belt Conveyor
4.2.6.1 Main Resistance (R)
4.2.6.2 Secondary Resistance (RS)
4.2.6.3 Special Main Resistances (Rsp1)
4.2.6.4 Special Secondary Resistances (Rsp2)
4.2.6.5 Slope Resistance (Rsl)
4.2.7 Power Requirement
4.3 Bucket Elevator
4.3.1 Types of Bucket Elevator
4.3.1.1 Centrifugal Bucket Elevator (CBE)
4.3.1.2 Positive Discharge Elevators
4.3.1.3 Continuous Bucket Elevator
4.3.2 Selection for the Type of Bucket Elevator
4.3.3 Design of Bucket Elevator
4.3.3.1 Capacity
4.3.3.2 Selection of Buckets
4.3.3.3 Selection of Casing and Take-Ups
4.3.3.4 Selection of Chain and Belt
4.3.4 Estimation of Tension in Chain/Belt
4.3.5 Selection of Plies in Belt
4.3.6 Sprocket Diameter and Speed of Elevators
4.3.7 Spacing between Buckets
4.3.8 Power Requirement
4.4 Screw Conveyor
4.4.1 Design Consideration
4.4.2 Design Calculations
4.4.2.1 Nominal Size of Screw Conveyor
4.4.2.2 Pitch of Screw
4.4.2.3 Shaft Diameter
4.4.2.4 Trough Height and Width
4.4.2.5 Radial Clearances
4.4.2.6 Guarding
4.4.2.7 Conveying Velocity
4.4.3 Capacity of Screw Conveyor
4.4.4 Effect of Inclination on Capacity of Screw Conveyor
4.4.5 Power Requirement
4.5 Exercise
References
5: Drying
5.1 Basic Concepts
5.1.1 States and Phases of Water
5.1.2 Vapour Pressure of Water
5.2 Drying
5.3 Moisture
5.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content
5.3.1.1 Direct/Primary Methods
Air Oven
Vacuum Oven
Brown-Duvel Fractional Distillation
Infrared Moisture Meter
5.3.1.2 Indirect/Secondary Methods
Chemical Method
Electrical Resistance Method
Dielectric Method
Near-Infrared Method
5.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content
5.4.1 Estimation of Equilibrium Moisture Content
5.5 Heat Requirements
5.5.1 Sensible Heat
5.5.2 Latent Heat
5.6 Psychrometrics
5.6.1 Dry Bulb Temperature
5.6.2 Wet Bulb Temperature
5.6.3 Dew Point Temperature
5.6.4 Humidity
5.6.4.1 Absolute Humidity/Humidity Ratio
5.6.4.2 Relative Humidity
5.6.5 Measurement of Humidity
5.6.5.1 Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers
5.6.5.2 Hair Hygrometers
5.6.5.3 Electrical Resistance Hygrometers
5.6.5.4 Dew Point Meter
5.6.5.5 Specific Volume
5.6.5.6 Enthalpy
5.7 Heat Transfer in Drying
5.8 Mass Transfer in Drying
5.9 Drying Rates
5.10 Constant Rate Drying
5.10.1 Estimation of Rate of Drying During Constant Rate Period
5.11 Falling Rate Drying
5.11.1 Material with One Falling Rate and Drying Curve Passes through Origin
5.11.2 Materials with More Falling Rate Periods
5.11.3 Thin Layer Drying
5.11.4 Calculation of Effective Diffusivities
5.11.5 Calculation of Activation Energy
5.12 Types of Dryers
5.12.1 Tray Dryers
5.12.2 Tunnel Dryers
5.12.3 Drum/Rotary Dryers
5.12.4 Fluidized Bed Dryers
5.12.5 Pneumatic Dryers
5.12.6 Spray Dryers
5.12.7 Belt/Trough Dryers
5.12.8 Bin Dryers
5.12.9 Vacuum Dryers
5.12.10 Freeze Dryers/Lyophilizer
5.12.11 Flat Bed Dryers
5.12.12 Continuous Flow Dryer
5.12.13 LSU Dryer
5.12.14 Solar Dryers
5.13 Advanced Drying Technologies
5.14 Dryer Performance and Efficiency
5.15 Effect of Drying on Foods
5.15.1 Texture
5.15.2 Flavour
5.15.3 Colour
5.15.4 Nutritional Value
5.16 Exercise
References
Websites
6: Size Reduction
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Size Reduction Mechanism
6.2.1 Compression/Crushing
6.2.2 Impact
6.2.3 Cutting
6.2.4 Shearing
6.2.5 Attrition
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior during Size Reduction
6.4 Factors Affecting Size Reduction Process
6.5 Grinding
6.5.1 New Surface Formed by Grinding
6.5.2 Calculation of Specific Surface Area
6.5.3 Degree of Grinding
6.5.4 Fineness Modulus
6.6 Laws of Size Reduction and Energy Calculation
6.6.1 Rittinger´s Law
6.6.2 Kick´s Law
6.6.3 Bond´s Law
6.6.4 Summary of Laws of Size Reduction
6.7 Size Reduction Equipments
6.7.1 Hammer Mill
6.7.2 Ball Mill
6.7.2.1 Calculation of Critical Speed
6.7.3 Burr Mill or Plate Mill
6.7.4 Jaw Crusher
6.7.5 Gyratory Crusher
6.7.6 Crushing Roll
6.7.6.1 Smooth Roll Crusher
6.7.6.2 Serrated or Toothed-Roll Crusher
6.7.7 Cutter Mill
6.7.8 Reitz Mill
6.7.9 Colloid Mills
6.7.10 Concentric Cylinder Abrasive Mills
6.8 Low-Temperature Grinding
6.9 Cryogenic Grinding
6.10 Size Reduction of Liquid
6.10.1 Emulsification
6.10.2 Factors Affecting the Stability of Emulsion
6.10.3 Mechanism of Emulsion Breakdown
6.10.4 Stokes´ Law and Emulsion Stability
6.10.5 Emulsifier
6.10.6 Size Reduction and Preparation of Emulsion
6.11 Solved Examples
References
7: Mixing and Forming
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mixing
7.2.1 Features of Mixing
7.2.2 Objective
7.2.3 Characteristics of Mixture
7.2.4 Mixing Mechanism
7.2.5 Types of Mixing Operation
7.2.5.1 State of Mixing
7.2.5.2 Mixing and Segregation Properties
7.2.5.3 State of Mixing May Include the Following
Dispersing and Dissolution into Liquids
Mixing of Particulate Materials
Mixing of Batter and Dough
7.2.6 Measurement
7.2.6.1 Sampling
7.2.6.2 Methods of Sampling
7.2.6.3 Sample Size
7.2.6.4 Scale of Scrutiny
7.2.7 Mixing Operations in the Food Industry
7.2.7.1 Solid Mixing
Mechanism
Theory
Mixing and Segregation
Mixing Quality (Mixedness)
Mixing Index
Mixing Rate and Mixing Efficiency
Mixing Energy Input
7.2.7.2 Liquid Mixing
Flow Pattern
Mixing Rate
Power Consumption
7.2.7.3 Liquid/Liquid Mixing
7.2.7.4 Solid/Liquid Mixing
7.2.7.5 Liquid/Gas Mixing
7.2.7.6 Mixing of Gases
7.2.7.7 Multi-phase Mixing
7.2.8 Selection of Mixing Equipment
7.2.9 Classification of Mixing Equipment
7.2.9.1 On the Basis of the Scale of Mixing
7.2.9.2 On the Basis of Flow Properties
7.2.9.3 On the Basis of the Configuration Used
7.2.9.4 On the Basis of Speed
7.2.9.5 On the Basis of the Axis of Rotation of Mixing Vessel
7.2.9.6 On the Basis of Powder Falls
7.2.9.7 On the Basis of State and Rheology of Food Material
Particulate Solid Mixers for Dry Powders
Low or Medium Viscosity Liquid Mixers (Blenders/Agitators)
Mixers for High Viscosity Liquids and Pastes
Dough, Batter, and Paste Mixers and Kneaders
7.2.10 Effect on Foods
7.3 Forming
7.3.1 Bread Molders
7.3.2 Biscuit Formers and Pie
7.3.3 Confectionary Molders
7.4 Recent Advancement in the Science of Mixing
7.5 Exercise
References
8: Cleaning and Separation
8.1 Cleaning
8.1.1 Dry Cleaning
8.1.2 Wet Cleaning
8.2 Separation
8.2.1 Types of Separators
8.2.1.1 Disc Separator
8.2.1.2 Indented Cylinder Separator
8.2.1.3 Specific Gravity Separator
8.2.1.4 Spiral Separator
8.2.1.5 Inclined Draper Separator
8.2.1.6 Velvet Roll Separator
8.2.1.7 Magnetic Separator
8.2.1.8 Color Separator
8.2.1.9 Stone Separator
8.2.1.10 Pneumatic Separator
8.2.1.11 Cyclone Cylinder Separator
8.2.2 Size of Screens
8.2.2.1 Grizzly Screen
8.2.2.2 Gyrating Screen
8.2.2.3 Vibrating Screen
8.2.3 Sieve Analysis
8.2.3.1 Sieve Diameter
8.2.3.2 Range of Analysis
8.2.3.3 Sample Preparation and Sieve Analysis
8.2.3.4 Specification of Sieves
8.2.3.5 Approximate Screen Area
8.2.3.6 Aperture Tolerance Average (ATA)
8.2.3.7 Capacity of Screen
8.2.3.8 Effectiveness of Screen
8.3 Sedimentation
8.3.1 Drag Force
8.3.2 Particle Velocity in a Fluid
8.3.3 Sedimentation in Fluids
8.3.3.1 Gravitational Sedimentation in Liquids
8.3.3.2 Sedimentation of Particles in Gas
8.3.4 Sedimentors
8.3.4.1 Gravity Settling Tank
8.3.4.2 Solid Contact Unit
8.3.4.3 Settling Under Combined Forces
8.3.5 Centrifugation
8.3.5.1 Cyclones
8.3.5.2 Liquid Separation
Horizontal Bowl Centrifuge
Tubular Centrifuges
Disc Bowl Centrifuge
Nozzle Discharge Centrifuge
Self-Opening Centrifuge
Basket Centrifuges
8.4 Filtration
8.4.1 Rate of Filtration
8.4.2 Types of Filters
8.4.2.1 Pressure Filters
Batch-Plate-and-Frame Filter Press
Shell-and-Leaf Pressure Filter
8.4.2.2 Vacuum Filters
Rotary Drum Filter
Rotary Disc Filter
8.4.2.3 Cartridge Filters
8.4.2.4 Centrifugal Filters
Batch Centrifugal Filters
Continuous Centrifugal Filters
8.4.2.5 Edge Filters
8.4.2.6 Air Filters
8.4.2.7 Membrane Filters
Microfiltration
Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration
Reverse Osmosis Filtration
8.5 Application of Centrifugation/Filtration in Food Processing Industries
8.6 Exercise
References
9: Storage
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Perishable Foods
9.1.2 Semi-Perishable Foods
9.1.3 Non-Perishable Foods
9.2 Requirements of Storage
9.2.1 Requirements for Non-Perishable Foods
9.2.2 Requirements for Perishable Foods
9.3 Control of Temperature
9.4 Control of Relative Humidity (RH)
9.4.1 Water Activity (aw)
9.5 Destructive Agents
9.5.1 Molds
9.5.2 Bacteria
9.5.3 Insects
9.5.4 Mites
9.5.5 Rodents
9.5.6 Birds
9.5.7 Factors Affecting Food Spoilage
9.5.7.1 Respiration of Grains
9.5.7.2 Enzymes
9.5.7.3 Air and Light
9.5.7.4 Storage Period
9.6 Moisture and Temperature Changes in Stored Grains
9.7 Traditional Storage Structures
9.7.1 Folding Kothi
9.7.2 Underground Storage Structure
9.7.3 Earthen Pot Storage Structure
9.7.4 Drum Storage Structure
9.7.5 Straw Storage Structures
9.7.6 Mud Storage Structures (Kuthla)
9.7.7 Bamboo or Reed Storage Structure
9.7.8 Basket-Type Storage Structure
9.7.9 Ground Bag Storage Structure (Thekka)
9.7.10 Box-Like Timber Storage Structure (Kothar)
9.7.11 Wooden Storage Structures (Kothi)
9.7.12 Masonry Storage Structures (Bakhari)
9.8 Improved Storage Structures
9.8.1 Double-Walled Polyethylene-Lined Bamboo Bin
9.8.2 Pusa bin
9.8.3 Welded Wire Mesh Bin
9.8.4 Domestic Cloth Structure
9.8.5 Masonry Storage Structure
9.8.6 Reinforced Cement Concrete Ring Bin
9.8.7 Paddy Straw Mud Structure
9.9 Modern Storage Structures
9.9.1 Flat and Hopper Bottom Metal Bin
9.9.2 Hermetically Sealed Underground Structure
9.9.3 Reinforced Brick Bin
9.9.4 Partly Underground and Partly Aboveground Storage Structure
9.9.5 Brick-Walled Silo
9.10 Cover and Plinth Storage
9.11 Cocoon Storage
9.12 Bag Storage Godown/Warehouse
9.12.1 Requirements of Warehouses
9.12.2 Estimation of Space Requirement for Stacking of Bags
9.13 Bulk Storage
9.13.1 Flow of Granular Material Through Orifice
9.13.2 Flow Rate Through Orifice
9.13.3 Deep Bins and Shallow Bins
9.13.4 Silo
9.13.5 Silo Design
9.13.5.1 Maximum Lateral and Vertical Pressures
9.14 Hermetic Storage
9.15 Material Handling and Ancillary Equipment
9.16 Modified Atmosphere Storage
9.17 Controlled Atmosphere Storage
9.17.1 Advantages of Storage Under CA
9.17.2 Disadvantages of CA Storage
9.18 Cold Storage
9.18.1 Factors Responsible for Effective Cold Storage
9.18.2 Precooling
9.18.2.1 Icing
9.18.2.2 Room Cooling
9.18.2.3 Forced-Air Cooling
9.18.2.4 Hydro-Cooling
9.18.2.5 Vacuum and Hydro-Vacuum Cooling
9.18.2.6 Merits and Demerits of Different Precooling Methods
9.18.3 Cold Storage Layout
9.18.4 Airflow Design
9.18.5 Ventilation
9.19 Calculation of Refrigeration Requirements
9.19.1 Field Heat
9.19.2 Heat of Respiration
9.19.3 Conductive Heat Gain/Loss
9.19.4 Equipment Heat Load
9.19.5 Convective Heat Gain/Loss
9.19.6 Total Cooling Load
9.20 Economic Aspects of Storage
9.20.1 Variable Costs
9.20.2 Monitoring Costs
9.20.3 Pest Management Costs
9.20.4 Shrinkage
9.20.5 Quality Deterioration
9.20.6 Fixed Costs of Storage
9.20.7 Returns on Investment (ROI) in Storage Structures
9.21 Exercise
References
10: Processing of Cereals
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Importance of Cereals
10.3 Major Popular Cereals
10.4 Production of Cereals
10.5 Properties of Cereals
10.6 Composition and Nutrient Potential
10.6.1 Health Benefits
10.7 Antinutritional Factors
10.8 Processing of Cereals
10.8.1 Fermentation
10.8.2 Extrusion
10.8.3 Milling
10.8.4 Milling of Rice: A Case Study
10.8.4.1 Parboiling
10.8.4.2 Crucial Steps in Parboiling Process
10.8.4.3 Different Stages of Parboiling
10.8.4.4 Benefits of Parboiling
10.8.4.5 Drawbacks of Parboiling
10.8.4.6 Parboiling Methods
10.8.4.7 Effect of Parboiling on Milling, Cooking, and Nutritional Quality
10.8.5 Milling of Wheat: A Case Study
10.8.5.1 Pre-cleaning/First Cleaning
10.8.5.2 Conditioning/Dampening of Cleaned Wheat
10.8.5.3 Second Cleaning
10.8.5.4 Milling
Rollers
Break Rolls/Rollers
Break System
Reduction System
Purification
10.8.6 Milling of Corn: A Case Study
10.8.6.1 Wet Milling of Corn
10.8.6.2 Dry Milling of Corn
10.9 Equipment Involved in Handling and Processing of Cereals
10.9.1 Hullers/Grinders
10.9.1.1 Rice Dehuller
10.9.1.2 Rice Huller Polisher
10.9.1.3 Rubber Roller/Rubber Roll Sheller
10.9.1.4 Hammer Mill
10.9.1.5 Ball Mill
10.9.2 Separators
10.9.2.1 Cyclone Separators
10.9.2.2 Magnetic Separators
10.9.2.3 Specific Gravity Separator (SGS)
10.9.2.4 Inclined Draper
10.9.2.5 Indented Cylinder Separator
10.10 Quality Standards
10.11 Applications
10.11.1 Processed Rice Products
10.11.2 Processed Wheat Products
10.11.3 Processed Corn Products
10.12 Exercise
References
11: Processing of Pulses
11.1 Pulses: Importance
11.2 Nutrient Potential of Pulses
11.3 Antinutrients in Pulses and Effect of Processing
11.3.1 Soaking
11.3.2 Dehydration
11.3.3 Cooking
11.3.4 Extrusion
11.4 Unit Operations in Pulse Processing
11.4.1 Cleaning and Grading
11.4.2 Pitting
11.4.3 Premilling Treatments
11.4.4 Dehusking and Splitting
11.4.5 Polishing
11.5 Milling
11.6 Grinding
11.7 Major Factors Affecting Milling Efficiency
11.7.1 Seed Size
11.7.2 Legume Type
11.7.3 Variety
11.7.4 Moisture
11.8 Effect of Milling
11.9 Milling of Pulses: A Case Study
11.9.1 Black Gram: A Case Study
11.9.2 Chickpeas, Lentils, and Bengal Gram: A Case Study
11.9.3 Pigeon Pea: A Case Study
11.10 Milling Calculations
11.10.1 Dehulling Efficiency (DE)
11.10.2 Dehulling Index (DI)
11.10.3 Splits Yield (SY)
11.10.4 Percentage Kibble or Brokens
11.11 Quality Specifications for Pulses
11.12 Value Addition of Pulses
11.12.1 Baby Foods
11.12.2 Imitation Milks
11.12.3 Bean Curd
11.12.4 Meat Products
11.12.5 Baked Goods, Glazers, Frosting, and Pastes
11.12.6 Extruded Products
11.13 Quality Standards
11.14 Exercise
References
12: Processing of Oilseeds
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Composition of Oils
12.3 Properties of Oils/Fats
12.3.1 Density
12.3.2 Rheological Properties
12.3.3 Thermal Properties
12.3.4 Electrical Properties
12.3.5 Optical Properties
12.3.6 Solid Fat Index
12.4 Oilseed Processing
12.4.1 Handling and Storage
12.4.2 Sorting/Grading
12.4.3 Pretreatments
12.4.4 Oil Extraction
12.4.4.1 Ghanies
12.4.4.2 Hydraulic Press
12.4.4.3 Screw Oil Press/Expellers
Small Screw Oil Press
Large Screw Oil Press
12.4.5 Filtration of Oil
12.4.6 Solvent Extraction
12.4.6.1 Solvent Extractor
Contact Time
Particle Thickness
Extraction Temperature
Miscella Flux Rate
Number of Miscella Stages
Solvent Retention
12.4.6.2 Meal Desolventizer Toaster (DT)
Predesolventizing Trays
Counter Current Trays
Sparge Tray
12.4.6.3 Meal Dryer Cooler
Steam Drying Trays
Air Drying Trays
Air Cooling Trays
12.4.6.4 Miscella Distillation System
12.4.6.5 Solvent Recovery System
12.4.7 Refining Process
12.4.7.1 Bleaching
Bleaching Earth
Activated Carbon
12.4.7.2 Deodorization
Temperature
Pressure
Steam
Time
Material of Deodorizer and Chelating Agents
Deodorization Equipment
12.4.8 Hydrogenation
12.4.8.1 Factors Affecting Hydrogenation Process
12.4.9 Packaging
12.5 Oilseed Processing: Case Studies
12.5.1 Rapeseed and Mustard
12.5.1.1 Drying
12.5.1.2 Cleaning and Conditioning
12.5.1.3 Decortications/Flaking
12.5.1.4 Heat Treatment
12.5.1.5 Extraction of Oil
12.5.1.6 Clarification of Oil
12.5.2 Soybean
12.5.2.1 Preparation
12.5.2.2 Gritting
12.5.2.3 Conditioning
12.5.2.4 Flaking and Extrusion
12.5.2.5 Extraction of Oil
12.5.3 Groundnut (Peanut)
12.5.3.1 Stripping
12.5.3.2 Drying
12.5.3.3 Decortication
12.5.3.4 Extraction of Oil
12.5.4 Sunflower Oil
12.5.4.1 Cleaning, Dehulling and Grinding
12.5.4.2 Pressing
12.5.4.3 Extraction of Oil with Solvents
12.5.4.4 Oil Refining
12.5.5 Cotton Seed
12.5.6 Castor Seed Oil
12.6 FSSAI Standards for Different Refined Oils
12.7 Utilization of By-Products/Waste from Oilseed Processing
12.7.1 Food Supplementation
12.7.2 Enzyme Production
12.7.3 Mushroom Production
12.7.4 Antibiotics Production
12.7.5 Utilization as Feed
12.8 Exercise
References
Web Resources
13: Processing of Fruits and Vegetables
13.1 Proximate Composition of Important Fruits and Vegetables
13.2 Important Properties of Fruits and Vegetables
13.2.1 Appearance
13.2.2 Acidity
13.2.3 Flavor
13.2.4 Texture of Fruits and Vegetables
13.2.5 Nutritional Value
13.3 Processing and Preservation
13.3.1 Thermal Processing
13.3.1.1 Blanching
13.3.1.2 Pasteurization/Sterilization
13.3.1.3 Sterilization
13.3.1.4 Important Parameters to Describe the Effectiveness of Heat
13.3.1.5 Drying
Tunnel Drying
Spray Drying
Freeze-Drying
Osmotic Dehydration
13.3.1.6 Canning
Process
Selection of Fruits and Vegetables
Grading
Washing
Peeling
Cutting
Blanching
Cooling
Filling
Exhausting
Sealing
Processing
Storage
Aseptic Canning
13.3.1.7 Aseptic Processing of Juices
13.3.2 Other Processing Techniques
13.3.2.1 High Pressure Processing (HPP)
13.3.2.2 Ultrasonic
13.3.2.3 Electromagnetic Radiation Microwave processing
13.3.2.4 Electromagnetic Radiation Radio Frequency
13.3.2.5 High-Intensity Pulsed Electric Field (HI-PEF)
13.4 Preservation
13.4.1 Cellar Storage
13.4.2 Chilling (0-5 C)
13.4.3 Freezing (-18 C)
13.4.4 Freezing of Fruits and Vegetables
13.4.4.1 Slow Freezing
13.4.4.2 Quick Freezing (Rapid Freezing)
By Direct Contact Systems
Immersion Freezer
Immersion with Low-Freezing-Point LiquidImmersion with Low-Freezing-Point Liquid
Immersion with Cryogenic LiquidImmersion with Cryogenic Liquid
By Air Blast (Air Blast Freezing)
Fluidized Bed Freezing
By Indirect Contact Systems
Plate Freezing
Batch Plate FreezersBatch Plate Freezers
Continuous Plate FreezersContinuous Plate Freezers
13.4.5 Innovative Freezing Technologies
13.4.6 Preservation by Chemicals
13.5 Effect of Processing on Physicochemical Properties and Quality of Fruits and Vegetables
13.6 Value-Added Products
13.6.1 Pickles
13.6.2 Jam
13.6.3 Jelly
13.6.4 Pectin
13.6.4.1 Pectin Preparation
13.6.4.2 Determination of Pectin Content
13.6.5 Marmalade
13.6.5.1 Problems in Preparation of Marmalade
13.7 Peeling of Fruits and Vegetables
13.7.1 Knife Peeling
13.7.2 Mechanical Knife Peeling Machine
13.7.3 Abrasive Peeling Machine
13.7.4 Combination Peelers
13.8 Cutting of Fruits and Vegetables Using Knife
13.8.1 Mechanism
13.8.2 Knife Effectiveness Parameters
13.8.2.1 Indentation Parameter
13.8.2.2 Blade Sharpness Index (BSI) Parameter
13.8.3 Cutting Device: Knife
13.8.3.1 Types of Knife
Tapered Ground Edge Knife
Granton Knife
Serrated Knife
Scalloped Slicer
Single Ground Edge Japanese Knife
Turning Knife
Slicing Knife
Chinese Cleaver
Mezzaluna
Pizza Cutter
13.9 Exercise
References
Websites
Appendix A