Preface
Contents
About the Author
1: Introduction
1.1 Historical Perspective of Optical and Wireless Communication Systems
1.1.1 Wireless Communication Historical Perspective
1.1.2 Optical Communication Historical Perspective
1.2 Optical Communications Systems and Networks Fundamentals
1.3 Wireless Communications Systems Fundamentals
1.4 Organization of the Book
1.5 Concluding Remarks
References
2: Propagation Effects in Optical and Wireless Communications Channels, Noise Sources, and Channel Impairments
2.1 Electromagnetic Field and Wave Equations
2.1.1 Vector Derivatives (grad, div, and curl) in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinate System
2.1.2 Vector Derivatives (grad, div, and curl) in Cylindrical Polar and Spherical Coordinate Systems
2.2 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves
2.2.1 Propagation of Plane Waves
2.2.2 Vectorial Nature of the Light, SnellΒ΄s Law of Refraction, Reflection Coefficients, and Total Internal Reflection
2.2.2.1 Polarization
2.2.2.2 SnellΒ΄s Law of Refraction, Reflection Coefficients, and Total Internal Reflection
2.2.2.3 Optical Fibers
2.2.2.4 Polarizing Elements
2.2.3 Electromagnetic Potentials and Electromagnetic Waves
2.2.3.1 Electromagnetic Potentials
2.2.3.2 Concept of Antenna
2.2.3.3 Spherical Waves
2.2.3.4 Plane Waves
2.2.3.5 Hertzian Dipole
2.2.3.6 Straight-Wire Antenna
2.2.3.7 Cylindrical Waves
2.2.3.8 Paraxial Approximation and Gaussian Beam
2.2.4 Interference, Coherence, and Diffraction in Optics
2.2.4.1 Interference
2.2.4.2 Coherence
2.2.4.3 Diffraction Theory
2.2.4.4 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Approximations
2.2.5 Laser Beam Propagation Over the Atmospheric Turbulence Channels
2.2.5.1 Paraxial Wave Equation
2.2.5.2 Split-Step Beam Propagation Method
2.2.5.3 Paraxial Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Approximations
2.2.5.4 Rytov Method
2.2.5.5 Modeling Atmospheric Turbulence Effects
2.2.5.6 Kolmogorov Theory of Turbulence and Corresponding Generalizations
2.2.5.7 Rytov Method of Small Perturbations
2.2.5.8 Gamma-Gamma Distribution of Irradiance
2.3 Propagation Effects in Wireless Communication Channels
2.3.1 Path Loss and Shadowing Propagation Effects in Wireless Communication Channels
2.3.1.1 Free-Space Path Loss and Doppler Shift
2.3.1.2 Radar Range Equation
2.3.1.3 Ray Tracing Approximation
2.3.1.4 General Ray Tracing (GRT) Model
2.3.1.5 Scattering Effects
2.3.1.6 Simplified Path Loss and Multislope Models
2.3.1.7 Empirical Path Loss Models
2.3.1.8 Shadowing Effects
2.3.1.9 Outage Probability and Cell Coverage Area
2.3.2 Statistical Multipath Wireless Communication Channel Models
2.3.2.1 Multipath Channel Models
2.3.2.2 Narrowband Fading Model
2.3.2.3 Clark-Jakes Model
2.3.2.4 Envelope and Power Distributions in Narrowband Models
2.3.2.5 Average Fade Duration
2.3.2.6 Discrete-Time (DT) Model
2.3.2.7 Finite-State Markov Channel (FSMC) Model
2.3.2.8 Wideband Channel Models
2.3.2.9 Power Delay Profile and Coherence Bandwidth
2.3.2.10 Channel Coherence Time and Fading Channels Classification
2.4 Signal Propagation in Optical Fibers and Corresponding Channel Impairments
2.4.1 Fiber Attenuation and Insertion Losses
2.4.2 Chromatic Dispersion Effects
2.4.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
2.4.4 Fiber Nonlinearities
2.4.4.1 Fiber Nonlinearities Classification
2.4.4.2 Effective Length and Effective Cross-Sectional Area
2.4.4.3 Kerr Effect, Self-Phase Modulation, and Nonlinear Length
2.4.4.4 Cross-Phase Modulation
2.4.4.5 Four-Wave Mixing
2.4.4.6 Raman Scattering
2.4.4.7 Brillouin Scattering
2.4.5 Generalized Nonlinear SchrΓΆdinger Equation
2.4.5.1 GNLSE for Single Channel Transmission
2.4.5.2 GNLSE for Multichannel Transmission
2.4.5.3 GNLSE for Polarization Division Multiplexing Systems
2.4.5.4 GNLSE for Spatial Division Multiplexing Systems
2.5 Noise Sources in Optical Channels
2.5.1 Mode Partition Noise
2.5.2 Reflection-Induced Noise
2.5.3 Relative Intensity Noise (RIN) and Laser Phase Noise
2.5.4 Modal Noise
2.5.5 Thermal Noise
2.5.6 Spontaneous Emission Noise and Noise Beating Components
2.5.7 Quantum Shot Noise
2.5.8 Dark Current Noise
2.5.9 Crosstalk
2.6 Indoor Optical Wireless Communication Channels
2.6.1 Infrared Optical Wireless Communications
2.6.2 Visible Light Communications (VLCs)
2.7 Concluding Remarks
2.8 Problems
References
3: Components, Modules, and Subsystems
3.1 Key Optical Components, Modules, and Subsystems
3.1.1 Optical Communications Basics
3.1.2 Optical Transmitters
3.1.2.1 Lasers
3.1.2.2 External Modulators
3.1.2.3 I/Q Modulators and Polar Modulators
3.1.3 Optical Receivers
3.1.4 Optical Fibers
3.1.5 Optical Amplifiers
3.1.5.1 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA)
3.1.5.2 Raman Amplifiers
3.1.5.3 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)
3.1.6 Optical Processing Components and Modules
3.1.6.1 Optical Couplers
3.1.6.2 Optical Filters
3.1.6.3 WDM Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
3.1.7 Principles of Coherent Optical Detection
3.1.8 Optical Hybrids
3.1.9 Coherent Optical Balanced Detectors
3.2 Modules/Components Relevant to Wireless Communications
3.2.1 DSP Basics
3.2.1.1 The Role of System (Transfer) Function and Relationship Between DT and CT Fourier Transforms
3.2.1.2 Discrete-Time System Realizations
3.2.2 Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS)
3.2.3 Multirate DSP and Resampling
3.2.3.1 Downsampling
3.2.3.2 Upsampling
3.2.3.3 Resampling
3.2.3.4 Noble Identities
3.2.3.5 Cascaded-Integrator-Comb (CIC) Filter-Based Upsampling and Downsampling
3.2.3.6 Polyphase Decomposition
3.2.3.7 Polyphase Filter-Based Resampling
3.2.4 Antenna Arrays
3.2.5 Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
3.3 Concluding Remarks
3.4 Problems
References
4: Capacities of Wireless and Optical Channels
4.1 Mutual Information, Channel Capacity, and Information Capacity Theorem
4.1.1 Mutual Information and Information Capacity
4.1.2 Capacity of Continuous Channels
4.2 Capacity of Flat-Fading and Frequency-Selective Wireless Fading Channels
4.2.1 Flat-Fading Channel Capacity
4.2.1.1 Channel Side Information at Receiver
4.2.1.2 Full CSI
4.2.2 Frequency-Selective Fading Channel Capacity
4.2.2.1 Time-Invariant Channel Capacity
4.2.2.2 Time-Variant Channel Capacity
4.3 Capacity of Channels with Memory
4.3.1 Markov Sources and Their Entropy
4.3.2 McMillan Sources and Their Entropy
4.3.3 McMillan-Khinchin Model for Channel Capacity Evaluation
4.4 Calculation of Information Capacity by the Forward Recursion of the BCJR Algorithm
4.5 Information Capacity of Systems with Coherent Optical Detection
4.6 Hybrid Free-Space Optical (FSO)-RF Channel Capacity
4.6.1 Hybrid FSO-RF System Model Description
4.6.2 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) in Hybrid FSO-RF Communications
4.7 Concluding Remarks
4.8 Problems
References
5: Advanced Modulation and Multiplexing Techniques
5.1 Signal Space Theory in Wireless Communications
5.1.1 Geometric Representation of Signals
5.1.2 Modulators and Demodulators
5.1.3 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
5.1.4 M-ary Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
5.1.5 Passband Digital Wireless/Optical Transmission
5.2 Multilevel (Two-Dimensional) Modulation Schemes
5.2.1 Two-Dimensional Signal Constellations for Wireless Communications
5.2.2 M-ary PSK Transmitters for Optical Communications
5.2.3 Star-QAM Transmitters for Optical Communications
5.2.4 Square- and Cross-QAM Transmitters for Optical Transmission
5.3 Multicarrier Modulation
5.3.1 Multicarrier Systems with Nonoverlapping Subcarriers
5.3.2 Multicarrier Systems with Overlapping Subcarriers
5.3.3 Dealing with Fading Effects on Subcarrier Level
5.4 MIMO Fundamentals
5.5 Polarization-Division Multiplexing (PDM) and 4-D Signaling
5.6 Spatial-Division Multiplexing and Multidimensional Signaling
5.6.1 SDM in Wireless Communications
5.6.2 SDM and Multidimensional Signaling in Fiber-Optic Communications
5.6.3 SDM and Multidimensional Signaling in Free-Space Optical (FSO) Communications
5.7 Optimum Signal Constellation Design
5.7.1 Iterative Polar Modulation (IPM)
5.7.2 Signal Constellation Design for Rotationally Symmetric Optical Channels
5.7.3 Energy-Efficient Signal Constellation Design
5.7.4 Optimum Signal Constellation Design (OSCD)
5.8 Nonuniform Signaling
5.9 Concluding Remarks
5.10 Problems
References
6: Advanced Detection Techniques and Compensation of Channel Impairments
6.1 Detection and Estimation Theory Fundamentals
6.1.1 Geometric Representation of Received Signals
6.1.2 Correlation and Matched Filter-Based Receivers Maximizing the Signal-to-Noise Ratio
6.1.3 Optimum and LLR Receivers
6.1.4 Symbol Error Probability Calculation
6.1.4.1 Calculation of Symbol Error Probability
6.1.4.2 Calculation of Bit Error Probability of Binary Signal Constellations
6.1.4.3 Calculation of Symbol Error Probability of M-ary QAM
6.1.4.4 Union-Bound Approximation
6.1.5 Estimation Theory Fundamentals
6.2 Wireless Communication Systems Performance
6.2.1 Outage Probability Scenario
6.2.2 Average Error Probability Scenario
6.2.3 Combined Outage and Average Error Probability Scenario
6.2.4 Moment-Generating Function (MGF)-Based Approach to Average Error Probability Calculation
6.2.5 Performance Evaluation in the Presence of Doppler Spread and Fading
6.3 Channel Equalization Techniques
6.3.1 ISI-Free Digital Transmission and Partial-Response Signaling
6.3.2 Zero-Forcing Equalizers
6.3.3 Optimum Linear Equalizer in MMSE Sense
6.3.4 Wiener Filtering
6.3.5 Adaptive Equalization
6.3.6 Decision-Feedback Equalization
6.3.7 MLSD (MLSE) or Viterbi Equalization
6.3.8 Blind Equalization
6.4 Synchronization Techniques
6.5 Adaptive Modulation Techniques
6.5.1 Variable-Power Variable-Rate Modulation Techniques
6.5.2 Adaptive Coded Modulation
6.6 Volterra Series-Based Equalization
6.7 Digital Backpropagation in Fiber-Optics Communications
6.8 Optical Communication Systems with Coherent Optical Detection
6.8.1 Balanced Coherent Optical Detection for 2-D Modulation Schemes
6.8.2 Polarization Diversity and Polarization-Division Demultiplexing
6.8.3 Homodyne Coherent Optical Detection Based on PLLs
6.8.4 Phase Diversity Receivers
6.8.5 Dominant Coherent Optical Detection Noise Sources
6.8.5.1 Laser Phase Noise
6.8.5.2 Polarization Noise
6.8.5.3 Transimpedance Amplifier Noise
6.8.5.4 Coherent Optical Detection in the Presence of ASE Noise
6.9 Compensation of Atmospheric Turbulence Effects
6.9.1 Adaptive Optics Techniques
6.9.1.1 Zernike Representation of Atmospheric Turbulence
6.9.1.2 Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor
6.9.1.3 Wavefront Correctors
6.9.2 SLM-Based Backpropagation Method
6.10 Concluding Remarks
6.11 Problems
References
7: OFDM for Wireless and Optical Communications
7.1 Introduction, OFDM Basics, and Generation of Subcarriers Using Inverse FFT
7.1.1 Introduction to OFDM
7.1.2 OFDM Basics
7.1.3 Generation of OFDM Signals
7.2 Guard Time, Cyclic Extension, and Windowing
7.2.1 Guard Time and Cyclic Extension
7.2.2 Windowing
7.3 Bandwidth Efficiency of OFDM
7.4 OFDM Parameter Selection, OFDM Building Blocks, and Parallel Channel Decomposition
7.4.1 OFDM Parameter Selection
7.4.2 OFDM Building Blocks
7.4.3 OFDM Parallel Channel Decomposition and Channel Modelling
7.5 CO-OFDM Principles, DFT Windowing, Frequency Synchronization, Phase Estimation, and Channel Estimation
7.5.1 Principles of Coherent Optical OFDM (CO-OFDM)
7.5.2 DFT Window Synchronization
7.5.3 Frequency Synchronization in OFDM Systems
7.5.4 Phase Estimation in OFDM Systems
7.5.5 Channel Estimation in OFDM Systems
7.5.5.1 Pilot-Aided Channel Estimation
7.5.5.2 Data-Aided Channel Estimation
7.6 Differential Detection in OFDM Systems
7.7 OFDM Applications in Wireless Communications
7.7.1 OFDM in Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
7.7.2 Coded-OFDM in Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)
7.8 OFDM for Wi-Fi, LTE, and WiMAX
7.9 OFDM in Ultra-Wideband Communication (UWC)
7.10 Optical OFDM Applications
7.10.1 Optical OFDM System Types
7.10.1.1 Coherent Optical OFDM (CO-OFDM) Systems
7.10.1.2 Direct Detection Optical OFDM (DDO-OFDM)
7.10.2 High-Speed Spectrally Efficient CO-OFDM Systems
7.10.2.1 Polarization-Division Multiplexed OFDM
7.10.2.2 OFDM-Based Superchannel Transmission
7.10.3 OFDM in Multimode Fiber Links
7.11 Concluding Remarks
7.12 Problems
References
8: Diversity and MIMO Techniques
8.1 Diversity Techniques
8.1.1 Basic Diversity Schemes
8.1.2 Receiver Diversity
8.1.2.1 Selection Combining
8.1.2.2 Threshold Combining
8.1.2.3 Maximum-Ratio Combining
8.1.2.4 Equal-Gain Combining
8.1.3 Transmitter Diversity
8.1.3.1 Transmitter Diversity when CSI Is Available on Transmitter Side
8.1.3.2 Transmitter Diversity when CSI Is Not Available: Alamouti Scheme
8.2 MIMO Optical and Wireless Techniques
8.2.1 MIMO Wireless and Optical Channel Models
8.2.2 Parallel Decomposition of Optical and Wireless MIMO Channels
8.2.3 Space-Time Coding: ML Detection, Rank Determinant, and Euclidean Distance Criteria
8.2.4 Relevant Classes of Space-Time Codes (STCs)
8.2.4.1 Alamouti Code (Revisited) and Orthogonal Designs
8.2.4.2 Linear Space-Time Block Codes
8.2.4.3 Space-Time Trellis Codes (STTCs)
8.2.5 Spatial Division Multiplexing (SDM)
8.2.5.1 BLAST Encoding Architectures
8.2.5.2 Multi-group Space-Time Coded Modulation (MG-STCM)
8.2.6 Linear and Decision-Feedback MIMO Receivers for Uncoded Signals
8.2.7 Suboptimum MIMO Receivers for Coded Signals
8.2.7.1 Linear and Zero-Forcing Receivers (Interfaces)
8.2.7.2 Linear MMSE Receiver (Interface)
8.2.7.3 Decision-Feedback and BLAST Receivers (Interfaces)
8.2.7.4 Spatial Interference Cancellation by Iterative Receiver (Interface)
8.3 Iterative MIMO Receivers
8.3.1 Factor Graph Fundamentals
8.3.2 Factor Graphs for MIMO Channels and Channels with Memory
8.3.3 Sum-Product Algorithm
8.3.4 Sum-Product Algorithm for Channels with Memory
8.3.5 Iterative MIMO Receivers for Uncoded Signals
8.3.6 Factor Graphs for Linear Block and Trellis Channel Codes
8.3.7 Iterative MIMO Receivers for Space-Time Coded Signals
8.4 Broadband MIMO
8.4.1 MIMO-OFDM Scheme
8.4.2 Space-Frequency Block Coding-Based MIMO
8.5 MIMO Channel Capacity
8.5.1 Capacity of Deterministic (Static) MIMO Channels
8.5.2 Capacity of Random MIMO Channels
8.5.2.1 Ergodic Capacity
8.5.2.2 Non-ergodic Capacity
8.5.2.3 Correlated Fading Channel Capacity
8.5.2.4 MIMO-OFDM Channel Capacity
8.6 MIMO Channel Estimation
8.6.1 Maximum Likelihood (ML) MIMO Channel Estimation
8.6.2 Least Squares (LS) MIMO Channel Estimation
8.6.3 Linear Minimum Mean Square Error (LMMSE) MIMO Channel Estimation
8.6.4 Selection of Pilot Signals
8.7 Massive MIMO
8.7.1 Massive MIMO Concepts
8.7.2 Massive MIMO Detection Schemes
8.8 Concluding Remarks
8.9 Problems
References
9: Advanced Coding and Coded Modulation Techniques
9.1 Linear Block Codes Fundamentals
9.2 BCH Codes Fundamentals
9.3 Trellis Description of Linear Block Codes and Viterbi Decoding Algorithm
9.4 Convolutional Codes
9.5 RS Codes, Concatenated Codes, and Product Codes
9.6 Coding with Interleaving
9.7 Codes on Graphs Basics
9.8 Turbo Codes
9.9 Turbo-Product Codes
9.10 LDPC Codes
9.10.1 Binary LDPC Codes
9.10.2 Decoding of Binary LDPC Codes
9.10.3 FPGA Implementation of Binary LDPC Decoders
9.10.4 Decoding of Nonbinary LDPC Codes
9.10.5 Design of LDPC Codes
9.10.5.1 Gallager Codes
9.10.5.2 Tanner Codes and Generalized LDPC (GLDPC) Codes
9.10.5.3 MacKay Codes
9.10.5.4 Large-Girth Quasi-Cyclic (QC) Binary LDPC Codes
9.10.6 Rate-Adaptive LDPC Coding
9.10.7 Rate-Adaptive Coding Implementations in FPGA
9.10.7.1 Rate-Adaptive LDPC Coding in FPGA
9.10.7.2 Rate-Adaptive GLDPC Coding in FPGA
9.11 Coded Modulation and Unequal Error Protection
9.11.1 Coded Modulation Fundamentals
9.11.2 Trellis-Coded Modulation
9.11.3 Multilevel Coded Modulation and Unequal Error Protection
9.11.4 Bit-Interleaved Coded Modulation (BICM)
9.11.5 Turbo Trellis-Coded Modulation
9.12 Hybrid Multidimensional Coded Modulation Scheme for High-Speed Optical Transmission
9.12.1 Hybrid Coded Modulation
9.12.2 Multilevel Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Modulation (ML-NB-LDPC-CM) for High-Speed Optical Transmissions
9.13 Multidimensional Turbo Equalization
9.13.1 Nonlinear Channels with Memory
9.13.2 Nonbinary MAP Detection
9.13.3 Sliding-Window Multidimensional Turbo Equalization
9.13.4 Nonlinear Propagation Simulation Study of Turbo Equalization
9.13.5 Experimental Study of Time-Domain 4D-NB-LDPC-CM
9.13.6 Quasi-Single-Mode Transmission Over Transoceanic Distances Using Few-Mode Fibers
9.14 Optimized Signal Constellation Design and Optimized Bit-to-Symbol Mapping-Based Coded Modulation
9.14.1 Multidimensional Optimized Signal Constellation Design
9.14.2 EXIT Chart Analysis of OSCD Mapping Rules
9.14.3 Nonlinear Optimized Signal Constellation Design-Based Coded Modulation
9.14.4 40 Tb/s Transoceanic Transmission Enabled by 8-ary OSCD
9.15 Adaptive Coding and Adaptive Coded Modulation
9.15.1 Adaptive Coded Modulation
9.15.2 Adaptive Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Multidimensional Modulation for High-Speed Optical Communications
9.15.3 Adaptive Hybrid FSO-RF-Coded Modulation
9.16 Concluding Remarks
9.17 Problems
References
10: Spread Spectrum, CDMA, and Ultra-Wideband Communications
10.1 Spread Spectrum Systems
10.1.1 Spread Spectrum Systems Fundamentals
10.1.2 Direct Sequence-Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) Systems
10.1.2.1 DS-SS Transmitters and Receivers
10.1.2.2 Acquisition and Tracking
10.1.2.3 RAKE Receiver
10.1.2.4 Spreading Sequences
10.1.3 Frequency Hopping-Spread Spectrum (FH-SS) Systems
10.2 Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Systems
10.2.1 Signature Waveforms
10.2.2 Synchronous and Asynchronous CDMA Models
10.2.2.1 Basic CDMA Models
10.2.2.2 Discrete-Time CDMA Models
10.3 Multiuser Detection
10.3.1 Conventional Single-User Correlator Receiver
10.3.2 Optimum Multiuser Detection
10.3.3 Decorrelating and Linear MMSE Multiuser Detectors
10.3.4 Decision-Driven Multiuser Detectors
10.4 Optical CDMA Systems
10.5 Hybrid OFDM-CDMA Systems
10.6 Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Communications
10.7 Concluding Remarks
10.8 Problems
References
11: Physical-Layer Security for Wireless and Optical Channels
11.1 Security Issues
11.2 Information-Theoretic vs. Computational Security
11.2.1 Information-Theoretic (Perfect) Security
11.2.2 Computational Security
11.2.3 Information-Theoretic Secrecy Metrics
11.3 WynerΒ΄s Wiretap Channel
11.4 Broadcast Channel with Confidential Messages and Wireless Channel Secrecy Capacity
11.4.1 Broadcast Channel with Confidential Messages
11.4.2 Wireless Channel Secrecy Capacity
11.5 Secret-Key Generation (Agreement) Protocols
11.5.1 Source-Type Secret-Key Generation
11.5.2 Channel-Type Secret-Key Generation
11.6 Coding for Physical-Layer Security Systems
11.6.1 Coding for Weak Secrecy Systems
11.6.1.1 Two-Edge-Type LDPC Coding
11.6.1.2 Punctured LDPC Coding
11.6.1.3 Polar Codes
11.6.2 Coding for Strong Secrecy Systems
11.6.2.1 Coset Coding with Dual of LDPC Codes
11.6.2.2 Hash Functions and Extractor-Based Coding
11.6.3 Information Reconciliation
11.7 Privacy Amplification
11.8 Wireless Channels Physical-Layer Security
11.8.1 PLS for Wireless MIMO Channels
11.8.2 Secret-Key Generation in Wireless Networks
11.9 Optical Channels Physical-Layer Security
11.9.1 SDM-Fibers-Based Physical-Layer Security
11.9.2 FSO Physical-Layer Security
11.10 Concluding Remarks
11.11 Problems
References
Appendix
A.1 Groups
A.2 Fields
A.3 Vector Spaces
A.4 Algebra of Finite Fields
A.5 Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM)
A.6 The z-Transform
A.6.1 Bilateral z-Transform
A.6.2 Properties of z-Transform and Common z-Transform Pairs
A.6.3 The Inversion of the z-Transform
References
Index