Additive Manufacturing with Metals: Design, Processes, Materials, Quality Assurance, and Applications

✍ Scribed by Sanjay Joshi, Richard P. Martukanitz, Abdalla R. Nassar, Pan Michaleris

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 669
• Edition: 1st ed. 2023
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This textbook and reference provides a comprehensive treatment of additive manufacturing (AM) for metals, including design and digital work flows, process science and reliability, metallic systems, quality assurance, and applications. The book is rooted in the fundamental science necessary to develop and understand AM technologies, as well as the application of engineering principles covering several disciplines to successfully exploit this important technology. As additive manufacturing of metals is the fastest growing subset of this transformative technology, with the potential to make the widest impact to industrial production, Metals Additive Manufacturing: Design, Processes, Materials, Quality Assurance, and Applications is ideal for students in a range of engineering disciplines and practitioners working in aerospace, automotive, medical device manufacturing industries.

✦ Table of Contents

Foreword
References
Contents
About the Authors
1 Introduction to Metal Additive Manufacturing
1.1 Introduction to Additive Manufacturing with Metals
1.2 Brief History of Additive Manufacturing of Metals
1.3 Classification of Additive Manufacturing Processes for Metals
1.4 Benefits of Additive Manufacturing
1.5 Organization, Topics, and Use of This Book
1.6 Questions and Discussions
References
2 Digital Processing Workflow for AM
2.1 Processing Workflow for Additive Manufacturing
2.2 AM Data Representation
2.2.1 STL File Format
2.2.1.1 Working with STL Files
2.2.1.2 Errors in STL Files
2.2.2 OBJ Format
2.2.3 AMF
2.2.4 3MF
2.3 Slicing
2.3.1 STL-Based Slicing
2.3.2 Representation Format for Slice Files
2.3.3 Implications of Slicing
2.3.4 Adaptive Slicing
2.3.5 Direct Slicing of CAD Models
2.4 Part Orientation and Build Direction
2.5 Support Structures
2.6 Tool Path Generation
2.7 Nesting/Packing the Build
2.8 Machine Setup
2.9 Post-processing of the Build
2.10 Simulation
2.11 Challenges in Creating the Digital Workflow
2.12 Questions and Discussions
References
3 Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes – Laser and Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion
3.1 Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion
3.1.1 Brief History
3.1.2 Process Description and System Components
3.1.2.1 Powder Delivery and Spreading Systems
3.1.2.2 Build Platform and Height Management
3.1.2.3 Gas Flow and Build Chamber Atmosphere Management
3.1.2.4 Laser, Laser Delivery, Focusing, and Scanning Systems
3.1.2.5 Control System and User Interface
3.1.3 Primary Binding Mechanisms
3.1.3.1 Solid-state Sintering
3.1.3.2 Chemically Induced Sintering
3.1.3.3 Liquid Phase Sintering
3.1.3.4 Partial Melting
3.1.3.5 Full Melting
3.1.4 Process Dynamics
3.1.4.1 Melt Pool Evolution
3.1.5 Process Parameters
3.1.5.1 Determining Proper Process Parameters
3.1.6 Materials
3.1.7 Microstructure and Properties
3.1.8 Maintaining Process Consistency and Quality
3.1.8.1 Powder Delivery and Spreading-Related Issues
3.1.8.2 Porosity/Density and Lack of Fusion
3.1.8.3 Thermal/Residual Stress-Related Effects
3.1.8.4 Chemistry-Related Effects
3.1.9 Advantages and Limitations
3.1.10 Examples of Parts and Applications
3.2 Electron Beam Powder Bed Process
3.2.1 Brief History
3.2.2 Process Description and System Components
3.2.2.1 Ebeam Generation and Delivery System
3.2.2.2 Vacuum System
3.2.2.3 Powder Feeder and Spreading
3.2.2.4 Intermediate Heating Steps
3.2.3 Process Dynamics
3.2.4 Materials
3.2.5 Microstructure and Properties
3.2.6 Comparison Between Laser and Ebeam PBF
3.2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electron Beam Melting
3.2.8 Example Parts and Applications
3.3 Questions and Discussions
References
4 Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes – Directed Energy Deposition Processes
4.1 Introduction to Directed Energy Deposition
4.2 Powder-Based Laser DED Process
4.2.1 Brief History
4.2.2 Process Description
4.2.3 System Components
4.2.3.1 Deposition Head
4.2.3.2 Laser and Laser Delivery
4.2.3.3 Powder Feed and Delivery Systems
4.2.3.4 Motion Systems
4.2.3.5 Processing Space or Chamber
4.2.3.6 Control System
4.2.4 Process Dynamics
4.2.5 Process Parameters
4.2.6 Materials
4.2.7 Microstructure and Material Properties
4.2.8 Maintaining Process Consistency
4.2.9 Advantages and Limitations
4.2.10 Examples and Applications
4.3 Wire Feed-Based DED
4.3.1 Electron Beam-Based Wire DED
4.3.1.1 Process Overview
4.3.1.2 Process Dynamics
4.3.1.3 Process Parameters
4.3.1.4 Materials
4.3.2 Laser-Based Wire DED
4.3.3 Wire Arc AM
4.3.4 Resistance Heating-Based Wire Process
4.3.5 Process Parameters for Wire DED Systems
4.3.5.1 Wire Feeding Angle and Direction
4.3.5.2 Wire Feed Rate and Weld Speed
4.3.6 Materials, Microstructure, and Properties
4.3.7 Advantages and Limitations
4.3.8 Examples
4.4 Questions and Discussions
References
5 Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes – Jetting- and Extrusion-Based Processes
5.1 Binder Jetting
5.1.1 Brief History
5.1.2 Binder Jetting Process Description
5.1.3 System Components
5.1.3.1 Powder Spreading Systems
5.1.3.2 Inkjet Droplet Deposition
5.1.4 Process Dynamics
5.1.4.1 Droplet Formation and Droplet Substrate Interaction
5.1.4.2 Droplet Substrate Interaction
5.1.5 Process Parameters
5.1.5.1 Powder Feedstock-Related Parameters
5.1.5.2 Liquid Binder-Related Parameters
5.1.5.3 Powder Bed-Related Parameters
5.1.5.4 Machine/Device Parameters
5.1.5.5 Sintering Parameters
5.1.6 Materials
5.1.7 Material Microstructure
5.1.8 Advantages and Limitations
5.1.9 Example Parts and Applications
5.2 Material Jetting-Based Process
5.2.1 Solution-Based Deposition
5.2.2 Direct Droplet Deposition
5.2.2.1 Nozzle-Based Direct Droplet Deposition
5.2.2.2 Laser-Based Droplet Deposition
5.3 Extrusion-Based Fabrication of Metal Parts
5.3.1 Brief History
5.3.2 Process Overview
5.3.3 System Components
5.3.3.1 Material Feed Systems
5.3.3.2 The Extrusion/Print Head
5.3.3.3 Positioning System
5.3.3.4 Build Chamber Environment
5.3.3.5 Controller
5.3.4 Process Dynamics and Parameters
5.3.4.1 Extrusion
5.3.4.2 Debinding
5.3.4.3 Process Parameters – Extrusion
5.3.5 Materials
5.3.5.1 Filament/Rods
5.3.6 Process Consistency
5.3.7 Examples
5.4 Questions and Discussions
References
6 Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes – Deformation-Based AM and Hybrid AM Processes
6.1 Deformation-Based AM Processes
6.2 Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM)
6.2.1 Brief History
6.2.2 Process Overview
6.2.3 System Components
6.2.3.1 Power Supply
6.2.3.2 Transducer
6.2.3.3 Booster
6.2.3.4 Sonotrode
6.2.3.5 Anvil
6.2.3.6 CNC Machining
6.2.4 Material
6.2.5 Process Dynamics and Process Parameters
6.2.6 Bonding Principles in UAM
6.2.7 Process Workflow
6.2.8 Process Applications
6.3 Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing
6.3.1 Process Description
6.3.2 Process Parameters
6.3.2.1 Propulsive Gas Parameters
6.3.2.2 Powder-Related Parameters
6.3.2.3 Nozzle-Related Parameters
6.4 Additive Friction Stir Deposition (AFSD) AM Process
6.4.1 AFSD Process Overview
6.4.2 Process Fundamentals
6.4.3 Materials and Microstructure
6.4.4 Current Applications and Future Potential
6.5 Hybrid Additive Manufacturing Processes
6.5.1 DED + Multiaxis Machining
6.5.2 Integrated PBF + 3 Axis Milling
6.5.3 Deformation AM Processes + Machining
6.6 Questions and Discussions
References
7 Design for Additive Manufacturing and Cost and Economics of AM
7.1 AM Value Proposition
7.2 Design for AM (DfAM)
7.2.1 General Design Principles/Practices for AM(Strategic)
7.2.2 Specific Process-Related Considerations (Operational)
7.3 Topology Optimization
7.4 Lattice Structures
7.4.1 Strut-Based Cell Topology
7.4.2 Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS)
7.5 Cost and Economics of AM
7.6 Summary
7.7 Questions and Discussions
References
8 Energy Sources and Propagation
8.1 Lasers
8.1.1 Operating Principles
8.1.1.1 Stimulated Emissions
8.1.1.2 Population Inversion
8.1.1.3 Resonator
8.1.2 Laser Beam Propagation
8.1.2.1 Gaussian Beams
8.1.2.2 Focusing and Divergence of a Gaussian Beam
8.1.2.3 The ABCD Matrix Method
8.1.2.4 Propagation of Non-Gaussian Beams
8.1.3 Laser Types
8.2 Electron Beams
8.2.1 Operating Principles
8.2.1.1 Thermionic Emissions
8.2.1.2 Accelerating Voltage
8.2.1.3 Magnetic Focusing and Deflection
8.2.2 Grounding of the Substrate
8.2.3 E-Beam Propagation
8.2.4 Electron Beam Systems
8.3 Electric Arcs
8.3.1 Operating Principles
8.3.1.1 Arc Formation
8.3.1.2 Arc Plasma Properties
8.3.2 Arc Systems
8.4 Summary
8.5 Questions and Discussions
References
9 Source-Material Interactions
9.1 Lasers: Energy Transfer
9.1.1 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
9.1.2 Attenuation
9.1.3 Reflection
9.1.3.1 Absorption
9.2 Electron Beams: Energy Transfer
9.2.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
9.2.1.1 Absorption
9.3 Arc: Energy Transfer
9.4 Heating and Melting
9.4.1 Electromagnetic Forces and Arc Pressure
9.4.2 Evaporation
9.4.3 Surface Tensions (Marangoni Convention)
9.4.4 Buoyancy
9.4.5 Plasma Interactions
9.5 Summary
9.6 Questions and Discussions
References
10 Feedstock Delivery and Dynamics
10.1 Powder Feedstock
10.1.1 Powder Characteristics
10.1.1.1 Specific Powder Properties
10.1.1.2 Bulk Powder Properties
10.1.2 Powder Dynamics in Powder Bed Fusion
10.1.2.1 Densification
10.1.2.2 Denudation
10.1.2.3 Spatter
10.1.3 Powder Dynamics in Directed Energy Deposition
10.1.3.1 Powder Flow Stream
10.1.3.2 Source-Powder Interactions
10.1.3.3 Powder Catchment Efficiency
10.2 Wire Feedstock
10.2.1 Wire Characteristics
10.2.2 Wire Transfer Modes
10.3 Summary
10.4 Questions and Discussions
References
11 Mechanical Response
11.1 Thermal Expansion and Contraction, Plasticity, Distortion
11.2 Residual Stress and Cracking
11.3 Support Structures for Mechanical Response and Their Potential Failure
11.4 Questions and Discussions
References
12 Analytical Models
12.1 Rosenthal Solution for Semi-Infinite Space
12.2 The Method of Images and Virtual Heat Sources
12.3 Eager and Tsai Gaussian Heat Source Model
12.4 Computational Models
12.4.1 Heat Conduction
12.4.2 Elastoplastic Mechanical Response
12.4.3 Material Activation
12.4.4 Examples of Computational Models of Fusion-Based Metal AM Processes
12.4.4.1 DED
12.4.4.2 Powder Bed Fusion
12.4.5 Questions and Discussions
References
13 Alloy Systems for Additive Manufacturing
13.1 Constitution of Alloys and Development of Microstructure
13.2 Development of Strength in Metallic Systems
13.3 Alloy Systems for Additive Manufacturing
13.4 Properties and Selection of Metallic Materials for Additive Manufacturing
13.5 Alloys for Unique Requirements
13.6 Questions and Discussions
References
14 Metallic Feedstock
14.1 Powder Processing for Producing Feedstock
14.2 Powder Characteristics and Attributes
14.2.1 Physical Characteristics of Powder
14.2.1.1 Shape of Powder Particles
14.2.1.2 Size of Powder Particles
14.2.1.3 Density of Powder Particles
14.2.1.4 Composition of Powder
14.2.2 Characteristics of a Powder Aggregate
14.2.3 Attributes of a Powder Aggregate
14.3 Metal Powder and Binders
14.4 Wire Feedstock
14.5 Storage and Handling of Feedstock and Recycling of Powder
14.5.1 Storage and Handling of Feedstock
14.5.2 Recycling of Powder
14.6 Questions and Discussions
References
15 Solidification During Additive Manufacturing
15.1 Thermal Response of Material During Processing
15.2 Solidification
15.2.1 Chemical Driving Force for Solidification
15.2.2 Change in Free Energy During Heterogeneous Nucleation
15.2.3 Growth of the Solid Within the Liquid
15.2.3.1 Curvature at the Solid and Liquid Interface
15.2.3.2 Compositional Gradient Within the Solid and Liquid and Partitioning of Solute
15.2.4 Constitutional Undercooling and Interface Stability
15.2.5 Development of Microstructure During Solidification
15.2.6 Microsegregation of Solute During Solidification
15.2.7 Macrostructure and Microstructure of Additive Manufactured Metals
15.3 Questions and Discussions
References
16 Solid State Transformations and Gas Reactions During the Additive Manufacturing Process
16.1 Solid State Transformations During Additive Manufacturing
16.1.1 Diffusional Reactions
16.1.1.1 Precipitation Reactions
16.1.2 Allotropic Reactions and Impact on Strengthening
16.2 Gas and Liquid Reactions
16.2.1 Gas Porosity
16.2.2 Gas and Metal Chemical Reactions
16.3 Questions and Discussions
References
17 Modeling of Microstructure for Additive Manufacturing
17.1 Modeling Solidification
17.2 Modeling Solid-State Transformations
17.3 Questions and Discussions
References
18 Multiple Alloy Processing
18.1 Multiple Alloy Processing
18.1.1 Alloy Substitution
18.1.2 Compositional Grading
18.1.2.1 Grading with Feedstock
18.1.2.2 Elemental Grading
18.1.2.3 Surface Modifications
18.2 Compatibility of Compositions for Multiple Alloy Processing
18.3 Questions and Discussions
References
19 Post Processing
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Thermal Post Processing
19.3 Post Process Debinding and Sintering
19.4 Material Removal-Based Post Processing
19.4.1 Machining
19.4.2 Surface Finishing
19.5 Deformation (Non-material Removal)-Based Post Processing
19.6 Practical Considerations in Post Processing
19.7 Questions and Discussions
References
20 Properties and Characteristics of Metallic Materials Produced Using Additive Manufacturing
20.1 Mechanical Properties of Alloys Produced Using Additive Manufacturing
20.1.1 Tensile Properties Under Static Loading
20.1.2 Fatigue Properties Under Cyclic Loading
20.1.3 Toughness
20.2 Corrosion Sensitivity
20.3 Questions and Discussions
References
21 Process Quality and Reliability
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Traditional Process Performance Qualification Applied to Additive Manufacturing
21.2.1 Design and Process Definition
21.2.2 Additive Manufacturing Process Performance Qualification
21.2.3 Material Qualification
21.2.4 Processing System Qualification
21.2.5 Processing Condition Qualification
21.3 Sensor-Based Quality Assurance
21.3.1 Monitoring the Build Plan
21.3.2 Monitoring System Outputs
21.3.3 Monitoring Process Behavior
21.4 Summary
21.5 Questions and Discussions
References
Index