Editorial
Contents
Part I: Plant Breeding and Technological Advances
Chapter 1: Genome Editing of Gene Families for Crop Improvement
1 Introduction
2 Benefits of Genome Editing in Crop Improvement
2.1 Improved Agronomic Traits
2.2 Improved Disease Resistance
2.3 Improved Quality
2.4 Improved Nutritional Content
3 Challenges of Genome Editing in Crop Improvement
4 Summary
References
Chapter 2: Base Editing and Prime Editing
1 Base Editing
1.1 Improving the Base Editing Efficiency
2 Prime Editing
2.1 Improving the PE Efficiency
3 Future Prospects and Limitations
3.1 Base Editors
3.2 Prime Editors
References
Chapter 3: Novel Delivery Methods for CRISPR-Based Plant Genome Editing
1 Introduction
2 Biological Delivery Methods
2.1 Bacteria Based Methods
2.2 Virus Vector-Based Methods
2.2.1 Tobacco Rattle Virus (TRV)
2.2.2 Barley Stripe Mosaic Virus (BSMV)
2.2.3 Bean Yellow Dwarf Virus (BeYDV)
3 Physical and Chemical Methods
3.1 Physical Methods
3.1.1 Gene Gun/Biolistic-Based Delivery
3.1.2 Electroporation
3.1.3 Sonication and Pulsed-Laser
3.1.4 Silicon Carbide Whiskers
3.2 Chemical Methods
3.2.1 PEG-Mediated Delivery
3.2.2 Lipofection
4 Emerging Technologies
4.1 In planta de novo Induction of Meristems
4.2 Editing During Haploid Induction
4.3 Editing Through Grafting
4.4 Nanotechnologies
5 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 4: Balancing Trait Improvement with Tradeoff Side-Effects Using Genome Editing Technology
1 Different Genetic Reasons Underlying a Tradeoff
2 Unique Genes
2.1 Flowering Time vs. Yield
2.2 Fruit Shelf Life vs. Lycopene Content
2.3 Seed Number vs. Seed Weight
3 Making Use of Expression Diversity in Orthologs/Homologs
3.1 Fruit Size vs. Inflorescence Branching
3.2 Shorter Plants vs. Plant Morphology
3.3 Vitamin C vs. Growth
3.4 Blast Resistance vs. Yield
4 Overcoming Linkage Drag
5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 5: CRISPR/Cas Mutation Screening: From Mutant Allele Detection to Prediction of Protein Coding Potential
1 Precision Gene Editing: Design Guided by Gene Structural Features
2 Types of Mutations Introduced by CRISPR/Cas Mediated Gene Editing
3 Screening Methods: Complexity, Resolution, and Scalability
4 Mutation Screening in a Broader Perspective: From Nucleotide to Protein
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Methods and Techniques to Select Efficient Guides for CRISPR-Mediated Genome Editing in Plants
1 Introduction
2 Approaches and Constraints of Genome Editing Using CRISPR Technology
2.1 CRISPR-Based Editors
2.2 Plant Transformation and Regeneration Bottlenecks
3 In Silico Designing of a Successful CRISPR Experiment
3.1 Features Affecting CRISPR-Mediated Editing
3.2 Selection of the Gene Region for Mutagenesis
3.3 Computational Tools for Guide Activity Prediction
4 Experimental Approaches for CRISPR Reagent Validation
4.1 Endonuclease Cleavage In Vitro Assay
4.2 Agroinfiltration Assay
4.3 Protoplast Assay
4.4 Hairy Root Assay
5 Analytical Techniques to Estimate the Editing Efficiency
6 Summary and Conclusions
References
Part II: Applications of Genome Editing
Chapter 7: Genome Editing of a Macroalgae with Possible Global Impacts
1 Genome Editing Prerequisites
1.1 Genetic Transformation Methods
1.2 Annotated Genomes
1.3 Macroalgae Cultivation and Breeding
2 Genome Editing – Important to Global Health for Mapping and Increasing Biodiversity to Survive Increasing Temperatures
3 Future Perspectives on Macroalgae Socioeconomics: From Ecology to Ecosystem Services
References
Chapter 8: A Short Review of Advances in Plant-Based Antigen Production Strategies and the Production of Viral Vaccine Antigens Derived from CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Edited N. benthamiana Plants for Enhanced Vaccine Efficacy
1 Production of Plant-Based Therapeutic Antigens and Antibodies
1.1 Background to Plant-Based Protein Production Systems
1.2 The Use of Nicotiana benthamiana in Transient Expression Systems
2 Antigen/Antibody Production for Sustainable Health Solutions
2.1 The Role of Glycosylation in Protein Function and Stability
2.2 Key Differences Between Human and Plant Glycosylation Patterns
2.3 CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Engineering of Glycosylation Patterns in N. benthamiana
3 Socioeconomics of Plant-Based Protein Production Including Regulatory Issues
References
Chapter 9: Precise Gene Editing of Cereals Using CRISPR/Cas Technology
References
Chapter 10: Implementing Genome Editing in Barley Breeding
1 Barley Breeding
2 Genome Editing Advancements in Barley
3 Using Genome Editing to Target Disease Resistance, Yield and Stability
4 Challenges in Barley Genome Editing
5 Social and Legislative Aspects of Using Genome Editing in Barley Breeding
References
Chapter 11: Current Status and Future Prospective of Genome Editing Application in Maize
1 Introduction
2 A Glance Over Conventional Maize Breeding
3 Maize Genetic Transformation
4 Mutagenesis in Maize
5 The CRISPR Technology Application in Maize
5.1 Novel Approaches for Maize Trait Improvement
6 Prospects
References
Chapter 12: Using Gene Editing Strategies for Wheat Improvement
1 Introduction
2 CRISPR-Cas Gene Editing
3 Multiplex Gene Editing
4 Base Editing
5 Prime Editing
6 Other Strategies
7 Recent Applications of Gene Editing in Wheat
8 Gene Editing for Grain Quality Improvement
9 Gene Editing for Grain Yield
10 Gene Editing for Biotic Stress Resistance
11 Gene Editing for Abiotic Stress Resistance
12 Summary
References
Chapter 13: Gene Editing of Wheat to Reduce Coeliac Disease Epitopes in Gluten
1 Introduction
2 Gene Editing in Polyploid Crops
3 Improving Regeneration of Wheat in Tissue Culture
4 Current Research and Trials Using Gene Edited Traits in Wheat
5 Wheat Gluten
6 Health-Related Wheat Components in Food
7 Wheat-Related Human Diseases
8 Gluten-Free Lifestyle
9 Gluten Epitopes for Coeliac Disease
10 Breeding Methods for Coeliac-Safe Wheat
11 RNA Interference
12 Gene Editing of Gluten in Wheat
13 Impacts of Gene-Edited Low CD-Immunogenic (‘Low-Gluten’) Wheat
References
Chapter 14: Genome Editing in Horticultural Plants: Present Applications and Future Perspective
1 Introduction
2 Non-CRISPR/Cas Genome Editing Systems and Their Applications in Horticultural Plants
3 CRISPR/Cas Systems in Horticultural Plants
4 Making Horticultural Plants More Tolerant to Abiotic and Biotic Stresses
5 Editing of Phenotypic Characteristics of Horticultural Plants
6 Modification of the Flowering Period and Lifetime
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Application of CRISPR/Cas-Mediated Genome Editing Techniques in Leguminous Crops
1 Introduction
2 Genome Editing Technology
3 Limitations in Genetic Modification of Legumes
4 Application of CRISPR/Cas9 in Grain Legumes
4.1 Medicago truncatula (Alfalfa)
4.2 Glycine max (Soybean)
4.3 Cicer arietinum (Chickpea)
4.4 Arachis hypogea (Peanuts or Groundnut)
4.5 Vigna radiata (Mungbean)
4.6 Vigna ungiculata (Cowpea)
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Genetic Improvement in Leguminous Crops Through Genome Editing
1 Introduction
1.1 Nutritional and Ecological Value of Leguminous Crops
2 Improvement in Legumes
2.1 Breeding of Legumes
2.2 Modern Genome Editing Tools
3 CRISPR-Mediated Genome Improvement in Legumes
References
Chapter 17: Soybean Improvement and the Role of Gene Editing
1 Soybean Production and Its Economic Value
2 Genetically Modified Soybean
3 Agronomically Important Soybean Traits and the Use of Gene Editing
3.1 Pod Shattering Resistance
3.2 Shoot Growth Habit
3.3 Photo-Periodicity
3.4 Seed Quality
3.5 Abiotic and Biotic Stress Resistance
4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: CRISPR/Cas-Based Precision Breeding of Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.) – Recent Improvements
1 Optimization of CRISPR/Cas Reagents and Ways of Their Expression
2 Delivery of CRISPR/Cas Reagents and Elements Carrying Information on CRISPR/Cas Reagents into Oilseed Rape Plant Cells
3 Fast-Checking the Efficiency of Targeted Mutagenesis of CRISPR/Cas Reagents
4 Oilseed Rape Plant Regeneration
5 New Applications of CRISPR/Cas Technology in Oilseed Rape Precision Breeding
6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Targeted Gene Editing in Pome Fruit Genetics and Breeding: State-of-the-Art, Application Potential and Perspectives
1 Introduction
2 Genome Editing Technologies in Pome Fruit Trees
2.1 Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)
2.2 Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs)
2.3 CRISPR/Cas Systems
2.4 Limitations of Genome Editing
3 Application Potential of Genome-Editing for the Advancement of Important Pome Fruit Breeding Goals
3.1 Yield Improvement
3.2 Fruit Quality Attributes
3.2.1 Sensorial Fruit Quality
3.2.2 Nutritional Quality and Food Functionality
3.3 Agronomic Traits
3.3.1 Disease and Pest Resistance
3.3.2 Abiotic Stress Tolerance
3.3.3 Tree Architecture
3.4 Pollination and Fertilization
3.4.1 Self-Incompatibility
3.4.2 Parthenocarpy
3.5 Tree Phenology
3.5.1 Juvenility
3.5.2 Dormancy
3.5.3 Biennial Bearing
4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 20: Genome Editing in Forest Trees
1 Prerequisites to Use Genome Editing in Trees
2 Genome-Edited Forest Tree Species
3 Advanced Editing Technologies and Current Developments
3.1 Effecting CRISPR/Cas Editing During Transformation and Regeneration
3.2 Optimising CRISPR/Cas Vectors for Forest Tree Editing
3.3 DNA-Free Editing
3.4 Gene Sequence Modification
3.5 CRISPR Activation
4 Forest Tree Relevant Traits as Breeding Objectives
4.1 Abiotic Stress Tolerances
4.1.1 Drought Stress
4.1.2 Salt Stress
4.2 Biotic Stress Resistance
4.3 Commercial Traits: Productivity and Wood Properties
4.3.1 Wood Productivity
4.3.2 Wood Composition
5 Biosafety of Genome-Edited Trees
References
Chapter 21: Genome Editing for Reduction of Bitterness and for Production of Medicinal Terpenes in Cichorium Species
1 Cichorium Species and Their Sesquiterpene Lactones
2 Genome Editing in Cichorium Species
3 Genome Editing for Reduction of Bitterness in Cichorium Crops
4 Genome Editing to Produce Medicinal Terpenes in Chicory
5 Potential of Genome Editing for Chicory Breeding
References
Chapter 22: Engineering Phytonutrient Content in Tomato by Genome Editing Technologies
1 Introduction
2 CRISPR-Cas9 System for the Nutritional Improvement in Tomato
3 Genome Editing for the Improvement of Carotenoid Content in Tomato Fruits
4 Genome Editing for the Improvement of Polyphenol Content in Tomato Fruits
5 Genome Editing for the Improvement in Vitamins and Other Phytonutrients in Tomato Fruits
6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 23: Breeding for Yield Quality Parameters and Abiotic Stress in Tomato Using Genome Editing
1 Introduction
2 CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing: Unlocking the Potential to Boost Tomato Yield and Quality
2.1 Fruit Set and Ripening Period
2.2 Fruit Size
2.3 Fruit Color
2.4 Fruit Firmness
2.5 Fruit Taste and Sweetness
2.6 Bioactive Compounds in Fruits
3 Empowering Tomato Crop Resilience: CRISPR/Cas9 for Abiotic Stress Adaptation
3.1 Salt Stress
3.2 Drought Stress
3.3 Heat and Cold Conditions
4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 24: Genome Editing-Based Strategies Used to Enhance Crop Resistance to Parasitic Weeds
1 Introduction
2 Genome Editing-Based Strategies Used to Enhance Parasitic Weeds Resistance in Crops
2.1 Genome Editing for Pre-HAUSTORIUM Resistance in Crops
2.1.1 Genome Editing for HAUSTORIUM Initiation Resistance in Crops
2.1.2 Genome Editing to Enhance Post-attachment Resistance in Crops
3 Prospective Applications of Genome Editing-Based Systems for the Control of Parasitic Plants in Crops
References
Part III: Policies and Regulations
Chapter 25: Genome Editing in Biotech Regulations Worldwide
1 Introduction
2 Countries/Regions with Strict Regulations
3 Countries/Regions with Liberal Regulations for Specific SDN Applications
4 Countries with Liberal Regulations (for Organisms Free of Foreign DNA)
5 Other Regulatory Frameworks
6 Other Countries – Ongoing Consultations
7 Compliance, Law Enforcement, Detection and Identification
8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 26: Interpreting Precision Breeding: Key Legal Concepts Under International Law and Current Domestic Regulatory Approaches in the Global South
1 International and National Legal Frameworks for Biosafety
2 What Is a Living Modified Organism (LMO)?
3 Key Features of the LMO Definition
3.1 What Is a Living Organism?
3.2 What Is a Novel Combination of Genetic Material?
3.3 What Is Modern Biotechnology?
4 What Is a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)?
5 Regulatory Approaches Governing Precision Breeding
6 Future Regulatory Perspectives on Precision Breeding
7 Summary
8 Further Reading
References
Chapter 27: CRISPR Processes Patents in Green Biotechnology: Collaborative Licensing Models
1 The Protection of New Genomic Techniques (NGTs)
1.1 Patents Characteristics
1.2 The CRISPR Patent Dispute and Legal Uncertainty
2 Alternative Models: Licensing Platforms and IP Clearing Houses
2.1 Concerns
2.2 Some Solutions of Collaborative Licensing Models: The Patent Pools
2.3 Some Solutions of Collaborative Licensing Models: The Clearing House Models
3 Success and Acceptability of Licensing Platforms and IP Clearing Houses
3.1 The Public Sector
3.2 Ethical Licensing
3.3 Open Licensing Systems (with CRISPR IP Research Tools Available)
3.4 Patent Quality
4 Conclusion
References
Resources
Part IV: Public and Stakeholder Perceptions
Chapter 28: The View of the European Seed Sector on Genome Editing Tools in Plant Breeding
1 Plant Breeding Has a Track Record to Contribute to Sustainability
2 The Ever-Evolving Plant Breeders’ Toolbox
3 The Role of New Breeding Techniques According to the European Seed Sector
4 Communication Practices and Needs for Plant Breeding Innovation
5 A Multitude of Collaborations in the Seed Sector
6 It’s Time to Act
References and Resources
Chapter 29: The Awareness of the Polish Society on New Genomic Techniques
1 Introduction
2 Material and Methods
2.1 The Survey
2.2 Characteristics of the Respondents
2.3 Statistical Analyses
3 Results
3.1 Demographic Characteristics
3.2 Knowledge About NGTs Among Polish Citizens
4 Discussion
5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 30: Improving Science Communication About Genome Editing – Mitigating Strong Moral Convictions Through Shared Moral Goals
1 Introduction
1.1 Genetic Engineering as a Potential Tool
1.2 Public Perception Stands in Stark Contrast to the Scientific Assessment
1.3 Public and Consumer Support Is Necessary for Adequate Policies and Their Adoption
1.4 Advocates in the German GE Debate Are Rarely Heard
1.5 Moral Convictions Can Hinder Policy Debates and Science Communication
2 GE Attitudes Are Likely Guided by Moral Intuitions
2.1 Complex Topics Such as GE Are Difficult to Assess as a Single Person with Time Constraints and Without Expert Knowledge
2.2 Public Debate Should Provide Guidance, But Mutual Accusations Make It Unclear Who to Trust
2.3 People Likely Resort to Moral Values and Emotions as Guidance
2.4 For Many, Trying GE Is Not Worth the Risk
3 Moral Intuitions About GE Have Resulted in Strong Moral Convictions
3.1 In the Public Eye, GE Has Become a Moral Goal, Rather Than a Means to Moral Goals
3.2 Moral Convictions Are Especially Hard to Mitigate
4 Can Strong Moral Convictions Be Mitigated?
4.1 Moral Goals Can Mitigate Strong Moral Convictions
5 Improved Science Communication About GE in Public Debate
5.1 Provide Credible and Tangible Advantages That Address Common Moral Goals
5.2 Include Credible and Salient Science Communicators That Truly Care About the Moral Goals
6 Summary
References
Chapter 31: The Citizens’ Awareness and Concerns During the Transition from Genetically Modified to Genome Edited Plants in Europe About Their Use in Agriculture and Food Production
1 From Genetically Modified to Genome Edited Plants: The Global Context
2 The Commercial Cultivation of Genetically Modified Plants in the EU
3 The Notifications for Field Trials with Genetically Modified and Genome Edited Plants in the EU
4 The Awareness and Concerns of the EU Citizens About the Use of Genetically Modified and Genome Edited Plants in Agri-Food
4.1 The Concern of the EU Citizens About the Use of GM Plants for Farming
4.2 The Awareness and Concern of the EU Citizens About the Use of GM and GE Ingredients in Food
4.2.1 The Awareness of the EU Citizens About the Use of GM and GE Ingredients in Food
4.2.2 The Concerns Expressed by EU Citizens About the Use of GM and GE Ingredients in Food
4.2.3 Trends and Evolution of the Awareness and Concerns Expressed by the EU Citizens About the Use of GM and GE in Food Production
4.3 The EU Citizens’ Awareness and Concerns During the Transition from GM to GE Plants
5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 32: What Is the Problem with Europe in a Philosophical Point of View?
1 Introduction
2 A Brief Look Back at the History of Europe During the Twentieth Century
3 ‘Big Principles’ Have Also Been Applied to Science and Technologies
4 Postmodernism as a Philosophical Background
5 Postmodernism Effects on Science
6 Fundamental Differences Between USA and Europe Regarding the Use of Technology
7 The Implication for ‘Poor’ Countries
8 The EU Commission Report on Gene Editing as an Example of Postmodern Framing
9 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 33: NGT Plant Products in the EU. The Postulates, The Outlooks, and Possible Consequences of a Regulatory System Reform in the Context of Legislative Reforms in Third Countries and Detection Requirements
1 Introduction
2 Problems with Detection and Identification of NGT Products
3 Situation in Third Countries
4 A Global Conceptual Shift
5 Conclusions
Literature
Part V: Future Outlook
Chapter 34: Prospects for Plant Genome Editing
1 Technology
2 Crop Improvement
3 Regulations
4 Public Perception
5 PlantEd