Cover
PLASTICS DESIGN LIBRARY (PDL) PDL HANDBOOK SERIES
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PLASTICS
SUSTAINABILITY:
CONCEPT, SOLUTIONS, AND IMPLEMENTATION
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 An Overview of Sustainability and Plastics: A Multifaceted, Relative, and Scalable Concept
Chapter 2 Plastics Overview: Outline of the Current Situation of Plastics
Chapter 3 Metrics of Sustainability in Plastics: Indicators, Standards, Software
Chapter 4 Easy Measures Relating to Improved Plastics Sustainability
Chapter 5 Eco-Design Rules for Plastics Sustainability
Chapter 6 Environmental and Engineering Data to Support Eco-Design for Plastics
Chapter 7 Advanced Environmental and Engineering Properties to Support Eco-Design for Plastics
Chapter 8 Economics Relating to Fossil and Renewable Plastics
Chapter 9 Recycling of Plastics, Advantages, and Limitation of Use
Chapter 10 Transition of Plastics to Renewable Feedstock and Raw Materials
Chapter 11 Plastics Sustainability: Drivers and Obstacles
Chapter 12 Plastics Sustainability: Prospective
Disclaimer
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Glossary
1 An Overview of Sustainability and Plastics: A Multifaceted, Relative, and Scalable Concept
1.1 Sustainability and Circular Economy
1.1.1 Sustainability is a Tripod Based on Environment, Economic, and Social Features
1.1.2 Circular Economy
1.2 Sustainability in the Plastics Field
1.2.1 Sustainable Design
1.2.2 Renewable Polymers
1.2.3 Sustainable Processes or Sustainable Manufacturing
1.2.4 Sustainable Use Phase
1.2.5 Waste Management, Repair, Reuse, Recycling
1.2.6 Economic Involvements
1.3 People’s Perception of Plastics Sustainability
1.3.1 Opinions of Plastics Sector Players
1.3.2 General Public Opinions: Survey Example and Social Network Opinions
1.3.2.1 Plastics Concern Overview
1.3.2.2 Plastics Concern Details
Environment
Applications
Technical Features
Economy
1.4 Drivers of Change
1.4.1 Standards and Reporting
1.4.2 Policies, Directives and Regulations
1.4.3 Examples of Marketing Strategy Based on Sustainability
1.4.4 Cautious Forecast of Major Changes in the Global Environment
1.5 Sustainable Material and Waste Management
1.5.1 Sustainable Materials Management: A New Approach to Material Selection
1.5.2 Sustainable Waste Management
1.5.2.1 Recycling of Production Wastes
1.5.2.2 Treatment of Postconsumer Products
Environment Advantages
Cost Savings
Regulations and Limitations
1.6 Sustainability is Vital to Mitigate Environment Damages Caused by Booming Plastics Consumption
1.6.1 Population Growth
1.6.2 Standard of Living
1.6.3 General Consequences of Population and Gross Domestic Product Growths
1.6.4 Sustainability, the Expected Response to Climate Change
1.6.4.1 Main Greenhouse Gases Overview
Water Vapor
Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Halogenated Gases
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Ozone
Sulfur Hexafluoride
Concluding Remarks
Urgency of Decisions
1.6.4.2 Climate Warming and Sea Level Rise: The Major Risks
1.6.4.3 Biological Consequences
1.6.5 Natural and Artificial Sinks
1.7 Overview of Specific Plastics Features
1.7.1 Population and Gross Domestic Product Push the Plastics Demand
1.7.2 The Extent of the Problem: The Worldwide Plastics Demand at a Glance
1.7.3 Plastics: A Generic Name for Very Diverse Materials
1.8 Environmental Issues From a Plastics Point of View
1.8.1 Potential Pollutants
1.8.2 Specific Environmental Issues for Plastics: Visual Pollution, Marine Litter, Single-Use Items
1.8.2.1 Marine Litter
1.8.2.2 Microplastics, Microbeads, Microfibers
1.8.2.3 Single-Use Products: What is the Problem?
1.8.3 High Lifetimes are a Handicap for Waste
1.9 A Major Issue for Sustainability: Plastics Processing Needs (Polluting) Energy
1.9.1 Energy Versus Gross Domestic Product
1.9.2 Overview of Energy Demand Forecast
1.9.3 Potential Energy Sources for the Future
1.9.3.1 Fossil Energy
1.9.3.2 Renewable Energy Resources
Hydropower
Wind power turbine
Solar power
Geothermal Energy
Biofuels and Other Biofeedstocks from Biomass
1.9.3.3 Share Examples of Electricity Sources
1.10 Water Footprint of the Plastics Industry and Water Stress
1.10.1 Overview
1.10.2 Water Consumption for Plastics Production
1.10.3 Best Available Techniques in the Production of Polymers
1.10.4 Polymers From Natural Sources: Not So Green From a Water Point of View
Reference
Further Reading
2 Plastics Overview
2.1 Do Not Confuse Thermoplastics, Thermoplastic Elastomers, Thermosets, Composites, and Hybrids
2.1.1 Thermoplastics
2.1.1.1 Advantages
2.1.1.2 Disadvantages
2.1.2 Thermoplastic Elastomers
2.1.3 Thermosets
2.1.3.1 Advantages
2.1.3.2 Disadvantages
2.1.4 Polymer Composites
2.1.5 Hybrid Materials
2.2 Compound Is Much More than Polymer: Build the Best Balance of Engineering, Cost, and Environmental Requirements Thanks ...
2.2.1 Plastic Alloying
2.2.2 Compounding With Additives
2.2.2.1 Mechanical Property Upgrading and Customization: Toughening, Reinforcement, Plasticization
Reinforcement
Reinforcement With Fibers
Reinforcement and Filling With Mineral Fillers
Reinforcement With Glass Beads
Nanofillers
Impact Modifiers
Plasticization
2.2.2.2 Aging Protection: Additives, Films
2.2.2.3 Sensory Properties
Scratch-Resistance Improvement
Odors
2.2.2.4 Specific Properties: Specific Grades and Additives
Fire Behavior
Conductive Polymers
Antistatic Specialties
Conductive Carbon Blacks
Conductive Fibers
Metal Powders or Flakes
Additives for Antifriction Polymers
Polymers With High Thermal Conductivity
Magnetic Polymers
2.2.2.5 The Cost Cutters
Nonblack Fillers
2.2.2.6 Use of Recycled Plastics
2.2.2.7 Structural Foams
2.3 Understand Particular and Surprising Behavior of Plastics
2.3.1 Elemental Composition Is Essential
2.3.2 Molecular Weight and Chain Architecture Are Also of High Importance
2.3.3 Crystalline and Amorphous Thermoplastics, Glass Transition Temperature
2.3.3.1 Amorphous Polymers
2.3.3.2 Crystalline and Semicrystalline Polymers
The Glass Transition Temperature
Crystallization is Time and Thermal Dependent and Isn’t Homogeneous
2.3.4 Viscoelasticity, Creep, Relaxation
2.3.4.1 Time Dependency
2.3.4.2 Temperature Dependency
2.3.5 Isotropy, Anisotropy
2.3.6 Potential Heterogeneity of Properties
2.3.6.1 Water Uptake Plasticizes Certain Polymers
2.3.6.2 Molecular and Filler Orientation
2.3.6.3 Don’t Confuse Local and Bulk Properties: Take Into Account the Statistical Distribution of Properties
2.3.7 Ambient Humidity Can Plasticize Polymers and Change Their Properties
2.3.8 Often Properties Evolve Abruptly: Glass Transition, Yield, Knees, Frequency-Dependent Properties
2.3.9 Dimensional Stability
2.3.9.1 Shrinkage
2.3.9.2 Warpage
2.3.9.3 Release of Organic Additives
2.3.10 Aging1
2.3.11 Chemical Resistance by Immersion or Contact
2.3.11.1 Exposure Without Constraint
2.3.11.2 Environmental Stress Cracking (ESC)
2.4 Sensory Properties of Plastics: An Outstanding Advantage for Marketing
2.4.1 Optical Properties
2.4.2 Touch
2.4.3 Scratch-Resistance Improvement
2.4.4 Acoustic Comfort
2.4.5 Odors
2.4.6 Taste
2.4.7 Fogging
2.5 Outline of the Technical and Economic Possibilities of Processing
2.5.1 Molding Solid Thermoplastics
2.5.2 Extrusion and Connected Processes
2.5.3 Calendering
2.5.4 Blow Molding
2.5.5 Molding Liquid Thermoplastics
2.5.6 Secondary Processing
2.5.7 Three-Dimensional Printing and Other Additive Manufacturing Methods
2.5.8 Brief Economic Comparison of Some Processing Costs
2.5.9 Repair Possibilities: A Significant Thermoplastic Advantage for Large Parts
Further Reading
3 Metrics of Sustainability in Plastics: Indicators, Standards, Software
3.1 Environment Management Systems
3.2 Life Cycle Accounts: LCI, LCA, LCIA
3.2.1 Life Cycle Overview
3.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory
3.2.3 Life Cycle Assessment
3.2.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
3.2.5 Incorporation of Eco-Design or Sustainable Design in the Life Cycle Through ISO 14006
3.2.6 Beware, Life Cycle Costing is Not an Environmental Feature
3.3 General Purpose and Specific Standards Linked to the Environment
3.3.1 Overview
3.3.2 Environmental Management: ISO 14000 Family and a Few Related Standards
3.3.3 Incorporation of Eco-Design or Sustainable Design in the Life Cycle Through ISO 14006
3.3.4 Environmental Assessment of Sites and Organizations
3.3.5 Environmental Labels and Declarations: The ISO 14020 Series of Standards
3.3.6 Environmental Performance Evaluation: ISO 14030 and ISO 14031
3.3.7 Detailed Accounts of LCA, LCI, LCIA: The ISO 14040 Series
3.3.8 Risk Management
3.3.9 Quality Management Systems: ISO 9000 Family Addresses Various Aspects of Quality Management
3.3.10 Environmental Product Declaration
3.4 Environmental Indicators
3.4.1 Overview
3.4.2 Energy Consumption
3.4.3 CO2 and other Greenhouse Gases, Gas Warming Potential
3.4.4 Water Footprint
3.4.5 Toxicity, Unwanted Emissions
3.4.6 Other Common Indicators
3.4.6.1 Ozone Depletion, Photochemical Oxidation
3.4.6.2 Photochemical Smog
3.4.6.3 Acidification
3.4.6.4 Eutrophication
3.4.7 Other Diverse Indicators
3.4.8 Examples of Indicators
3.5 Synthetic Indices Resulting From Environmental Indicator Integration
3.5.1 Overview
3.5.2 Eco-Profiling System—Volvo/Swedish Industry (https://www.iisd.org/pdf/globlgrn.pdf)
3.5.3 CML-IA by CML
3.6 Databases and Software Help in Environmental Management, but Can Lead to Some Discrepancy
3.6.1 Examples of Software Solutions
3.6.2 Software May Lead to Some Discrepancies
3.7 Clarification Concerning Some Terms
Further Reading
4 Easy Measures Relating to Improved Plastics Sustainability
4.1 Overview of Pace of Change in the Plastics Industry
4.2 Decrease the Material Impact on the Product Sustainability
4.2.1 Avoid, Minimize, or Ban Hazardous Materials; Obey Health and Safety Concerns, Regulation Compliance
4.2.2 Optimize Material Consumption Using Simulation and Modeling Tools
4.2.3 Avoid Nonrenewable Natural Resource Depletion Using Renewable Materials
4.2.4 Use Recycled Materials and Waste
4.2.5 Avoid Renewable Material Competing With Food or Causing Deforestation
4.2.6 Design to Facilitate Maintenance, Repair, Reuse, Refurbishment
4.2.7 Use Reliable Materials and Trustworthy Providers
4.3 Minimize Manufacturing Impact on the Environment
4.3.1 Invest in Efficient Machines
4.3.1.1 Injection Machines: A Critical Choice Between Hydraulic, Electric, and Hybrid Models
Hydraulic Injection Molding Machines
Electric Injection Molding Machines
Hybrid Injection Molding Machines
4.3.1.2 Peripherals and Retrofitting Solutions
4.3.2 Favor Less Energy-Demanding Compounds
4.3.3 Digitalization and Software Solutions
4.3.3.1 Smart or Intelligent Machines
4.3.3.2 Manufacturing Execution System Software
4.3.3.3 Enterprise Resource Planning Software
4.3.3.4 Software Solutions Integrated by Plastics Machinery Providers
Energy Monitoring
Troubleshooting
Intelligent Machines
Integrated Production
Interactive Services
4.3.3.5 Target Zero-Defect Manufacturing
Example of Mass-Produced Molded Parts
Example of Zero-Defect Manufacturing of Composite Parts in the Aerospace Industry
4.3.4 Promote Efficient Real-Time Quality Control
4.3.5 Preventive and Predictive Maintenance
4.3.6 Minimize Waste
4.3.7 Use Renewable Energy
4.3.8 Integrate Manufacturing Steps Using Direct Mixing, Comolding, Overmolding, In-Line Process, Workcells
4.3.8.1 Integrated Compounding
4.3.8.2 Coprocessing: Coinjection and Overmolding
4.3.8.3 Fluid-Assisted Injection Molding
4.3.8.4 In-Line Decoration: FIM, IMC, IML, Among Others
4.3.8.5 Printing and Laser Marking
Printing
Laser Marking
4.3.8.6 New Processes, Function Integration
Laser Structuring: Integrate Mechanical and Electrical Functions in MIDs by Laser Direct Structuring
In-Mold Assembly
4.3.8.7 Example of Alternative Processing Methods: Thermoformed Bottles Compete With Blow-Molded Ones
4.3.8.8 Workcells: Automation and Complete Production Cells
4.3.9 Integration of Subparts and Reduction of Raw Material Diversity
4.3.10 Potentially Hazardous Releases Possibly Emitted by Plastics
4.3.11 Think Retrofitting of Machinery
4.4 Reduce Impact of Supply and Distribution Chains
4.5 Reduce Impacts of the Use Phase
4.6 Balancing the Product Durability and Actual Sustainable Benefits
4.7 Optimize the End-of-Life
4.8 Competence Development, Training, e-Learning
References
Further Reading
5 Eco-Design Rules for Plastics Sustainability
5.1 Examples of Environmental Traps
5.1.1 Favorable Example of Automotive Industry: Reduction of Production Impact Matches a Net Impact Reduction Due to the Us...
5.1.2 Counterexample of House Building: Increase of Production Impact Leads to a Final Impact Mitigation due to the Use Phase
5.1.3 Selection of Energy Production Method can Replace a Pollution Type by Another
5.2 Specific Plastics Design Issues
5.3 Overview of Material Sustainability Impact
5.3.1 General Pathway toward Mitigation of Material Impact
5.3.2 Examples of Impact of Material Selection on Other Parameters
5.3.3 Have an Overall View of Sustainability including Late Phases
5.4 Design to Withstand Mechanical Loading
5.4.1 Overview
5.4.2 Temperature Effect
5.4.3 Loading Type Effect
5.4.4 Strain Rate or Time Effect
5.4.5 Impact Behavior
5.4.6 Hardness
5.4.7 Dynamic Fatigue
5.4.8 Dimensional Effects
5.4.9 Combination with other Parameters
5.4.10 Lifetime
5.4.11 Environmental Cost of Reinforcements
5.4.11.1 Fibers
All GFs have in common
Carbon Fibers
Natural Fibers
5.4.11.2 Natural Mineral Fillers
5.4.11.3 Cellulose Nanofibers
5.4.11.4 Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene
5.5 Plastics Behavior Above Ambient Temperature
5.5.1 Average Temperature
5.5.2 Continuous Use Temperature
5.5.3 Underwriter Laboratories Temperature Index
5.5.4 Heat Deflection Temperature
5.5.5 Vicat Softening Temperature
5.5.6 Accelerated Aging
5.5.7 Environmental Cost of Stabilizers and Antioxidants
5.6 Low Temperature Behavior
5.6.1 Low-temperature Tests
5.6.2 Brittle Point
5.6.3 Rigidity in Torsion: “Clash-Berg” and “Gehman” tests
5.6.4 Crystallization Test
5.6.5 Environmental Footprint of Plasticizers
5.7 Design for Dimensional Stability
5.7.1 Thermal Expansion or Retraction
5.7.2 Shrinkage
5.7.3 Warpage
5.7.4 Water or Chemicals Uptake
5.7.5 Aging, Desorption, Bleeding, Releasing of Organic Components
5.8 Electrical Properties
5.8.1 Volume Resistivity: ASTM D257 and IEC 93
5.8.2 Surface Resistivity: ASTM D257 and IEC 93
5.8.3 Dielectric Strength
5.8.4 Arc Resistance
5.8.5 High Voltage Arc Tracking Rate
5.8.6 Frequency, Temperature, Moisture, Physical, and Dynamic Aging Effects
5.8.7 Conductive Polymers: Sustainability Considerations
5.9 Fire Behavior: Some Ins and Outs
5.9.1 UL 94 Fire Ratings
5.9.2 Oxygen Index
5.9.3 Smoke Opacity, Toxicity, and Corrosivity
5.9.4 Cone Calorimeter
5.9.5 Ignition Temperature
5.9.6 Rate of Burning
5.9.7 Glow Wire Test
5.9.8 Fire Resistant Polymers: Sustainability Considerations
5.9.8.1 Inherently FR Polymers
5.9.8.2 FR Additive Solutions
5.9.8.3 The Top Solutions: Halogenated Flame Retardant and Fire, Smoke, and Toxicity Grades
5.9.9 General Collateral Effects from a Sustainability Standpoint
5.9.10 A Glimpse on General Behavior of Biopolymers
5.10 Sensory Issues: Optical Properties, Aesthetics, Odor, Taste, Touch
5.10.1 Complementarity of Instrumental Measurements and Sensory Panel Evaluations
5.10.2 Visual Aspect
5.10.3 Physical Aspect
5.10.4 Touch
5.10.5 Odor and Taste Properties and Transfer
5.10.6 Noise, Vibration, Harshness
5.10.7 General Collateral Effects of Colorants from a Sustainability Standpoint
5.10.7.1 Colorants and Pigments
5.10.7.2 Titanium Oxide
5.11 Design for Aging, Weathering, and Light and UV Behaviors
5.11.1 Overview of Light and Ultra Violet Resistance
5.11.2 Elements of Weathering Appraisal
5.11.2.1 Effect of Color
5.11.2.2 Effect of Anti-UV Additives
5.11.3 Examples of Published Assessments Relating to Light and UV Behavior of Compounds
5.11.3.1 Polyolefins and Derivatives
5.11.3.2 PVC and Other Chlorinated Thermoplastics
5.11.3.3 Styrenics
5.11.3.4 Polyamides
5.11.3.5 Thermoplastic Polyesters
5.11.3.6 Polymethylmethacrylate
5.11.3.7 Polycarbonate
5.11.3.8 Polyacetal
5.11.3.9 Polyphenylene Ether
5.11.3.10 Fluorinated Thermoplastics
5.11.3.11 Cellulosics
5.11.3.12 Polysulfone
5.11.3.13 Polyphenylene Sulfide
5.11.3.14 Polyetherimide
5.11.3.15 Liquid crystal polymer
5.11.3.16 Polybenzimidazole
5.11.3.17 Alloys
5.11.3.18 TPE and Thermoplastic vulcanizate
5.12 Lifetime and End-of-life Criteria
5.12.1 Overview
5.12.2 Accelerated Aging and Modeling
5.12.3 Smart Design and Mitigation of Aggressiveness of Surroundings are Benefiting from a Sustainability Standpoint
5.13 Regulation, Health, and Safety Requirements
Further Reading
6 Environmental and Engineering Data to Support Eco-Design for Plastics
6.1 Overview
6.2 Be Cautious of Some Traps Concerning Standards
6.2.1 General Boundaries of Standards
6.2.2 Real Cases Are Not Ideal Standardized Cases: Take Into Account the Statistical Distribution of Properties
6.2.2.1 Failure Onset: Weak Points and Average Properties
6.2.2.2 Do Not Confuse Local and Bulk Properties: Take into Account the Statistical Distribution of Properties
6.2.2.3 Means are False Friends
6.2.2.4 Standard Deviation Depends on Multiple Factors
6.2.3 Be Cautious of the Real Sense of Common Terms
6.3 Environmental Indicators
6.3.1 Use of Renewable Materials Instead of Fossil Resources
6.3.2 Energy Requirements
6.3.3 Net Carbon Footprint, CO2 and Other Greenhouse Gases, Global Warming Potential
6.3.4 Water Footprint
6.3.5 Examples of Other Environmental Indicators
6.3.6 Variability and Weakness of Environmental Indicators
6.3.7 Do Not Confuse Indicator per Weight and Indicator per Functional Unit
6.4 Usual Indicators for Plastics Design
6.4.1 Thermal Behavior
6.4.1.1 Overview
6.4.1.2 Glass Transition Temperature
6.4.1.3 Thermal Behavior above Room Temperature: HDT, CUT, UL Temperature
Heat Deflection Temperature or Deflection Temperature Under Load
General Assessments Concerning Continuous Use Temperature
Examples of UL Relative Temperature Index
Examples of Impact Strength Above Room Temperature
Examples of Vicat Softening Temperature
6.4.1.4 Low-Temperature Behavior
Expected Minimum Service Temperatures
Low-Temperature Tests
Standardized Impact Tests Processed at Low Temperatures
Brittle Point
Dynamic Torsion Modulus
Crystallization Test
6.4.2 Density
6.4.3 Mechanical Properties
6.4.3.1 Hardness
6.4.3.2 Stress and Strain Under Unidirectional Loading: Tensile, Flexural, and Compression Properties
6.4.3.3 Pay Attention to “Compression Modulus” That Can Hide “Bulk Modulus”
6.4.4 Examples of Water Uptake
6.4.5 Examples of Mold Shrinkage
Further Reading
7 Advanced Environmental and Engineering Properties to Support Eco-Design for Plastics
7.1 Advanced Properties That can Help Eco-Design
7.1.1 Fuel Energy and Feedstock Energy
7.1.2 Gas Warming Potential
7.1.3 Rapid Overview of Examples of Advanced Indicators
7.1.3.1 Examples of Ozone Depletion Potential
7.1.3.2 Photo-Oxidant Creation Potential
7.1.3.3 Acidification Potential
7.1.3.4 Eutrophication Potential
7.1.3.5 Dust/Particulate Matter (≤10μm3)
7.1.3.6 Ecotoxicity Potential
7.1.4 Natural-Sourced Versus Fossil Polymers: A Mixed Bag of Benefits and Drawbacks
7.2 Advanced Engineering Properties
7.2.1 Thermal Dependency of Mechanical Properties
7.2.1.1 Short-Term Effects of High and Low Temperatures
Behavior Above Room Temperature
Behavior Below Room Temperature
7.2.1.2 Long-term Heat Effect on Oxidizing Aging
7.2.2 Time Dependent Mechanical Properties
7.2.2.1 Creep
7.2.2.2 Relaxation
7.2.2.3 Fatigue
7.3 Poisson’s Ratios
7.4 Electrical Properties
7.4.1 Resistivity Examples
7.4.2 Dielectric Strength Examples
7.4.3 Examples of Dielectric Loss Factors
7.5 Flammability: Limiting Oxygen Index examples
7.6 Optical Properties: Examples of Transparent or Translucent Plastics
7.7 Gas Permeability
7.8 Tribological Properties
7.8.1 Coefficient of Friction
7.8.2 Limiting Pressure Velocity
References
Further Reading
8 Economics Relating to Fossil and Renewable Plastics
8.1 Raw Plastics Material Cost: Beware of Unusual “Raw” Materials and Waste Levels
8.1.1 Usual Physical Types of Plastics Raw Materials
8.1.2 Cost of Sophisticated Raw Materials
8.1.3 Examples of Additive Costs
8.1.4 Examples of Reinforcement Costs
8.1.5 Beware of the Actual Consumption of Plastic Compared to the Weight of the Part
8.2 Processing Costs
8.2.1 Capability Proposals for Some Processing Methods
8.2.1.1 Proposals for Thermoplastics
8.2.1.2 Proposals for Composites
8.2.2 Use of Cost Estimator Software
8.2.2.1 Examples of Cost Estimator Software
8.2.2.2 Examples of Cost Estimator Results
Agreement Between Different Cost Estimators
Example of Effect of Run Size
Check the Sensitivity and the Application Window of Variables of Interest
8.3 Examples of Costs
8.3.1 Expected Costs by Market
8.3.2 Expected Cost of Composites
8.4 Economics of Renewable Materials
8.4.1 Plastics Recycling
8.4.2 Biosourced Plastics Consumption
8.4.3 Market Shares by Bioplastic Family
8.4.4 Production Capacities by Bioplastic Family
8.4.5 Bioplastic Capacities by Region
8.4.6 Bioplastic Capacities by Market
8.4.7 Bioadditives Consumption
8.4.7.1 Natural Fiber Composite Market
8.4.7.2 Other Bioadditives
8.4.8 Wood Plastic Composite and Natural Fiber Composite Markets
8.4.9 Biomaterial Costs
8.4.9.1 Bioplastics Costs
8.4.9.2 Natural Fiber Costs
8.5 Survey of Main Bioplastics Markets
8.5.1 Packaging
8.5.2 Consumer Goods
8.5.3 Automotive and Transportation
8.5.4 Building and Construction
8.5.5 Agriculture
8.5.6 Other Markets
Further Reading
Papers and Books
9 Recycling Plastics: Advantages and Limitations of Use
9.1 Recycling Outline
9.1.1 Environmental Benefits of Recycling
9.1.2 Economics of Recycling
9.1.2.1 Market Overview by Region
Overview of Plastic Wastes in United States
Overview of Plastic Wastes in Europe
9.1.2.2 Recovery Costs: A Severe Obstacle to a Self-Growth
Incentive Effect of High Crude Oil Price
9.1.3 Reliability of Recycling
9.1.4 Example of Recycling Loop Effects on Performances
9.1.5 Recycling: Legislation, Standards, and Related Publications
9.1.5.1 EU Waste Legislation Examples
9.1.5.2 Automotive
Schedule
9.1.5.3 Packaging
9.1.5.4 Electrical and Electronic Equipment
9.2 Recycling Methods
9.2.1 Reprocessing of Processing Scraps and Mechanical Recycling
9.2.1.1 Overview
9.2.1.2 Effect of Pollutants
9.2.2 Recycled Material Upgrading by Additives
9.2.2.1 Overview
9.2.2.2 Compatibilizers
9.2.2.3 Impact Modifiers
9.2.2.4 Plasticization
9.2.2.5 Additives for Aging Protection
9.2.2.6 Sensorial Property Enhancers
9.2.2.7 Special Additives and Packages for Recyclate Upgrading
9.2.2.8 The Purity Enhancement
9.2.3 Chemical Recycling
9.2.3.1 Thermoplastic Polyesters
9.2.3.2 Polyurethanes
9.2.4 Solvent Recycling
9.2.4.1 Pretreatment
9.2.4.2 Selective Dissolution
9.2.4.3 Separation
9.2.5 Thermal Recycling
9.2.6 Energy Recovery
9.2.7 Anaerobic Biodegradation of Biodegradable Plastics With Gas Recovery
9.2.8 Enzymatic Depolymerization of Polylactic Acid
9.2.9 The REnescience Process Recovering Plastics and Metals From Municipal Solid Waste Without Sorting
9.3 Sectorial Routes for Recycling
9.3.1 Used Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottles: Realities of Everyday Life
9.3.1.1 Collection of Bottles
9.3.1.2 Sorting of Plastic Bottles
9.3.1.3 Bottle Recycling
9.3.1.4 Bottle-to-Bottle Recycling
9.3.1.5 Bottle to Engineering Thermoplastic Polyester Grades
9.3.2 High-Density Polyethylene Bottles
9.3.3 Electricity and Electronics: Closed- and Open-Loop Recycling
9.3.4 Auto: Closed- and Open-Loop Recycling
9.3.5 Recycling and Reprocessing of Building Products
9.3.6 Recycling of Thermosets
9.3.7 Recycling of Composites
9.3.8 Recycling of Glass and Carbon Fibers, and High-Performance Polymers
9.4 Recycling Advantages: CO2 Emission, Greenhouse Effect, and Carbon Footprint
9.4.1 Some Real Facts and Figures
9.4.2 Statistical Analyses of Some Real Examples
9.5 Recyclate Property Examples
9.5.1 Polyamides Examples
9.5.1.1 Industrially Recycled Polyamides
9.5.2 Polystyrene and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Examples
9.5.3 Polypropylene Examples
9.5.4 Examples of Polycarbonate, PC/ABS, and PC/PBT Alloys
9.5.5 Examples of Polyetherimide
9.6 Recycled Materials Often Also Bring Cost Saving in Addition to Pollution Savings
9.7 Some Limitations to Recycled Material Use
9.7.1 Underwriters Laboratories’s Recommendations on the Use of Regrind
9.7.2 Producer Recommendations
References
Further Reading
Websites
10 Transition of Plastics to Renewable Feedstock and Raw Materials: Bioplastics and Additives Derived From Natural Resources
10.1 Brief Inventory of Renewable Polymers
10.2 Renewable Additives
10.2.1 Renewable Plasticizers
10.2.2 Natural Reinforcements
10.2.2.1 Natural Fibers
10.2.2.2 Balsa
10.2.2.3 Other Organic Natural Fillers
10.2.2.4 Other Inorganic Renewable Natural Fillers
10.2.3 Processing Aids
10.2.4 Surface Friction Modifiers: Lubricant, Slipping, and Antiblocking Agents
10.2.5 Release Agents
10.2.6 Antistatic Additives
10.2.7 Optical Property Modifiers: Antifogging, Color, Gloss Modifiers
10.2.7.1 Renewable Colorants
10.2.8 Renewable Impact Modifiers and Tougheners
10.2.9 Protective Agents, Stabilizers, Thermal, and Antiaging Additives, Light Stabilizers
10.2.10 Miscellaneous Additives: Fire Retardants, Tackifiers, Nucleating Agent, Waxes, Hardeners, Foaming Agents, etc
10.2.11 Renewable Masterbatches Based on Renewable Matrix or Renewable Additive
10.3 Ready-to-Use Thermoplastic Blends Derived From Starch, a Natural Polymer
10.3.1 Overview
10.3.2 Processing
10.3.3 Environmental Features
10.3.4 Application Sectors
10.3.5 Examples of Producers and Trademarks
10.3.6 Property Tables
10.4 Polylactic Acid Polymerized From a Natural Monomer
10.4.1 Overview
10.4.2 Processing
10.4.3 Environmental Features
10.4.4 Application Sectors
10.4.5 Examples of Producers and Trademarks
10.4.6 Property Tables
10.4.6.1 Melt Strength Enhancement
10.4.6.2 Heat Stabilization
10.5 Natural Linear Polyesters Produced by Bacterial Fermentation—Polyhydroxyalkanoates
10.5.1 Overview
10.5.2 Processing
10.5.3 Environmental Features
10.5.4 Application Sectors
10.5.5 Examples of Producers and Trademarks
10.5.6 Property Tables
10.6 Cellulose Derivatives Based on Natural Cellulose
10.6.1 Overview
10.6.1.1 Advantages
10.6.1.2 Drawbacks
10.6.2 Processing
10.6.3 Environmental Features
10.6.4 Application Sectors
10.6.5 Examples of Producers and Trademarks
10.6.6 Property Tables
10.7 Biopolyethylene and Biosourced Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
10.7.1 Overview
10.7.1.1 Reminder of Advantages of Traditional Polyethylene
10.7.1.2 Reminder of Drawbacks of Traditional Polyethylene
10.7.2 Processing
10.7.3 Polyethylene Environmental Features
10.7.4 Polyethylene Application Sectors
10.7.5 Examples of Producers and Trademarks
10.7.6 Polyethylene Property Tables
10.7.7 Biobased Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Copolymer
10.8 Renewable PET, PBT, PEF, PTT Alternatives to Fossil Thermoplastic Polyesters PET and PBT
10.8.1 Replacement of the Fossil Alcohol by Natural Alcohol
First Step: Plant-Based Mono Ethylene Glycol
10.8.2 Second Step: Paraxylene for 100% Biopolyester
10.8.3 The Third Way: Polyethylene-Furanoate
10.8.4 Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate
10.8.5 PolyTrimethyleneTerephthalate
10.8.6 Partially Renewable Thermoplastic Elastomer Ester
10.8.7 Polybutylene Succinate
10.8.8 Property Examples of PET, PBT, PTT, TPEE, PBS
10.9 Renewable Polyamides
10.9.1 Polyamides With Long Hydrocarbon Segments: PA11, 1010, 1012
10.9.2 Polyamides Alternating Long and Short Hydrocarbon Segments: PA610, 510, 512, 514, 410
10.9.3 Polyamides With Short Hydrocarbon Segments: PA56
10.9.4 Amorphous Transparent Renewable Polyamides
10.9.5 Polyphthalamide
10.9.6 Renewable Polyether Block Amides
10.9.6.1 Property Tables
10.10 Renewable Polyurethanes
10.10.1 Natural and Renewable Oil Polyols
10.10.2 CO2-Containing Polyols
10.10.3 Bioisocyanate Crosslinker for Polyurethanes
10.10.4 Applications
10.10.4.1 Biopolyurethane Foams
10.10.4.2 Biopolyurethane Sprays
10.10.4.3 Coatings and Adhesives
10.10.4.4 Biothermoplastic Polyurethane
10.10.5 Examples of Environmental Advantages
10.10.6 Examples of Polyurethane Players
10.11 Renewable Unsaturated Polyesters
10.11.1 Overview
10.11.2 Applications
10.11.3 General Properties
10.11.3.1 General Advantages
10.11.3.2 General Drawbacks
10.11.3.3 Special Grades
10.12 Renewable Epoxy Resins
10.12.1 Natural-Sourced Epoxidized Oils and Epichlorhydrin
10.12.2 General Properties of Epoxy Resins
10.12.2.1 General Advantages
10.12.2.2 General Drawbacks
10.12.2.3 Special Grades
10.12.2.4 Applications
10.13 Biosourced Polycarbonates
10.14 Derivatives of Lignin: For Instance the Liquid Wood (Arboform by Tecnaro)
10.15 Example of Self-Reinforced Composite Produced From Cereals
10.16 Renewable Acrylics—Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)
10.16.1 General Advantages
10.16.2 General Drawbacks
10.17 Renewable Phenol Formaldehyde Resins
10.17.1 General Advantages
10.17.2 General Drawbacks
10.18 Renewable Polypropylene
10.19 Renewable Polyvinyl Chloride
10.19.1 General Advantages
10.19.2 General Drawbacks
10.20 Thermosetting Cyanate Ester Resins
10.21 Thermosetting Furanic Resins
10.22 An Endless List of Alloys
10.22.1 Alloys of Renewable Polymers
10.22.2 Hybrid Alloys of Renewable and Fossil Polymers
10.22.3 Others
10.22.3.1 Examples of Algae and Fossil Polymer Compounds
10.22.3.2 Various Bioplastics Derived From Renewable Raw Materials
References
Further Reading
11 Plastics Sustainability: Drivers and Obstacles
11.1 The Vast Range of Waste Strategies: From Waste Minimization to Landfilling
11.2 Waste Minimization
11.3 Repair and Reuse
11.3.1 Overview
11.3.2 High-Tech Repairs: Example of Aircraft Structural Repair
11.3.3 Benefits of Reused Drums
11.3.4 Refillable Bottles: May Be a Counterexample
11.3.5 Refurbishing and Upgrading Machinery: Benefits of Industry 4.0
11.3.5.1 Overview
11.3.5.2 Industry 4.0: A Modern Way to Inspire an Efficient Retrofitting
11.4 Recycling and Actual Reuse
11.4.1 Environmental Benefits of Recycling
11.4.2 Closed-Loop Recycling Overview
11.4.3 Recycling of High-Performance Materials: Example of Carbon Fiber
11.4.4 Global Warming Potential of Specific Recycled Polymers
11.4.5 Global Warming Potential of End Products Incorporating Recycled Polymers
11.4.6 Examples of Fossil Energy Gains Due to the Use of Recycled Resins
11.4.7 Fossil Energy Demand of End Products Based on Reused Materials and/or Recycled Polymers
11.4.8 Example of Inconsistency Between Indicators Relating to a Recycled Polymer Family
11.4.9 Examples of Cost Savings Due to Recycling
11.4.10 Example of Environmental Benefits of Recycling a Commodity Plastic: rPVC
11.4.11 Recycling, Reuse, or Use Virgin Polymer: The Right Answer Depends on the Actual Context
11.5 Policy, Legislation, Fees, Taxes, Bans, Deposit and Bill Strategies, and the Green Wave Are Real Game-changers
11.5.1 Incentive Legislation Example: Extended Producer Responsibility
11.5.2 Example of Regulation Restraining the Use of Plastics: Carrier Bags
11.5.3 Example of Regulation Boosting Recycling: End-of-Life Vehicles
11.5.4 Example of Recycled Plastics Limitations
11.5.5 Example of “Deposit and Bill” Approach: Beverage Bottles
11.6 Renewable Materials: Alternative to Oil Becoming Scarcer and Use of Natural-Sourced Materials
11.6.1 Success Story Examples
11.6.2 A Questionable Case
11.6.3 A Textbook Case: Replacement of ABS for Lego Bricks
11.6.3.1 Drop-in Solutions for Green ABS
11.6.3.2 Substitute Biobased Polymers for ABS
11.7 Ecological Features Boosting the Growth of Plastics
11.7.1 Functionality Integration Due to Design Freedom
11.7.2 Lightweighting: Energy and Resource Savings, Pollution Mitigation
11.7.2.1 Overview of General Plastics Solutions
11.7.2.2 Environment-Friendly Structural Solutions
11.7.2.3 The Main Potential Boosters and Brakes for Natural Fiber–Reinforced Composites
11.7.2.4 Fully Renewable Solutions: Natural Fibers and Biosourced Polymers
11.7.2.5 Hybrid Solutions Combine Renewable and Fossil Components
11.7.2.6 Sustainable Solutions Based on “Unsustainable” Composites
11.7.2.7 Automotive: A Promising Domain for Traditional Fossil Plastics
11.7.2.8 Composites Save Weight and Mitigate Pollution
Organosandwich
Traditional Composites
11.7.2.9 Mobility Solution Examples
Aircraft
Road Transportation
Marine
Railway
11.7.3 Take Advantage of the Unique Insulation Efficiency of Plastics Foams: “Zero Energy” Housing Examples and Others
11.8 Examples of Bottlenecks for the Growth of Plastics
11.8.1 Fire Behavior
11.8.2 Nanomaterials
11.8.3 3D Printing and Other Additive Manufacturing Techniques
11.9 Where We Stand Today: Global, Regional, Sectorial Inequalities
11.9.1 Global Landscape
11.9.2 Plastics Waste Treatment: Promising Results of Advanced Countries
11.9.3 Brief Jumble of Facts and Figures
References
Further Reading
12 Plastics Sustainability: Prospective
12.1 Demand and Growth Potential of Plastics
12.1.1 Overview of the Future Global Plastics Industry
12.1.2 Effects of Demography and Standard of Living
12.1.3 Rethinking Time Management
12.1.4 Authoritarian Restrictions, Bans, and Incentive Actions
12.1.5 Emerging Technologies: Example of Vehicles
12.1.5.1 Electric Vehicles
12.1.5.2 Autonomous Vehicles
12.1.6 The Dream of Almost Perfect Polymers
12.1.7 Alternative Fuels
12.1.8 Plastics Brand Image
12.1.9 Specificities Linked to Sustainable Plastics
12.2 Economics of Renewable Plastics and Bio-additives: Quantified Expectations
12.2.1 Renewable Plastics Consumption and Capacity Forecasts
12.2.1.1 Renewable Plastics Consumption Overview at Mid- and Long-Term
Recovery Volume
Bio-sourced Plastics Consumption
12.2.1.2 Market Shares by Bioplastic Family
12.2.1.3 Production Capacities by Bioplastic Family
12.2.1.4 Bioplastic Capacities by Region
12.2.1.5 Bioplastic Capacities by Market
12.2.1.6 Composites Consumption
12.2.2 Bio-additives Consumption
12.2.3 Bio-material Costs
12.2.3.1 Crude Oil: Shortage or Not?
12.2.3.2 Bioplastics Costs
12.2.3.3 Long-term Costs of Bioplastics Compared to Fossil Plastics
Modeling From Historical Prices
Crude Oil Price Expectations
Modeling Plastics Prices Thanks to Crude Oil Prices
12.3 Sustainability: The Problem Is at a System Level
12.3.1 Sustainability Game Changers: Smart Factories, Circularity, and Environmental Compliance
12.3.2 Emergence and Rapid Advance of Prescriptive Techniques
12.3.3 Examples of Strategies Aiming at a Better Sustainability
12.4 Wastes: Collection and Financing Schemes
12.4.1 Collection Systems: Separate or Commingled Waste
12.4.2 “Polluter Pays” Principle
12.4.3 Polymers Incompatible With Existing Recycling Streams
12.5 Recycling Management
12.5.1 Examples of Direct Involvement of Plastics Producers
12.5.2 Example of Associations of Plastics Industry
12.5.3 Example of Difficult-to-Recycle Hi-Tech Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic Composite for Aeronautics
12.5.4 Example of Industrial-Scale PS Recycling Channel
12.5.5 Better Reliability and Availability of Recycled Plastic Are Unavoidable Issues
12.6 Waste Sorting
12.7 Suppress the Pitfall of Waste Sorting: Process Plastics Waste Without Sophisticated Sorting
12.7.1 Depolymerization by Enzymes
12.7.2 Depolymerization by Microwaves
12.7.3 Other Methods
12.8 Municipal Solid Waste: A Mine of Plastics (and Other Materials) or an Environmental Calamity?
12.9 Ocean Litter: Calamity or Untapped Feedstock?
12.10 Examples of Sustainable Renewable Sources Used or Proposed by Resin Producers
12.11 Supramolecular, Vitrimers, and Other Self-Healing Polymers
12.12 Conclusion
Reference
Index
Back Cover