2021 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals

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• Publisher: ASHRAE
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
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I-P_F2021 FrontMatter.fm
2021 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals
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Preface
CHAPTERS
--- CHAPTER 01: PSYCHROMETRICS ---
1. Composition of Dry and Moist Air
2. U.S. Standard Atmosphere
3. Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air
4. Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation
5. Humidity Parameters
Basic Parameters
Humidity Parameters Involving Saturation
6. Perfect Gas Relationships for Dry and Moist Air
7. Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb and Dew-Point Temperature
8. Numerical Calculation of Moist Air Properties
Moist Air Property Tables for Standard Pressure
9. Psychrometric Charts
10. Typical Air-Conditioning Processes
Moist Air Sensible Heating or Cooling
Moist Air Cooling and Dehumidification
Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams
Adiabatic Mixing of Water Injected into Moist Air
Space Heat Absorption and Moist Air Moisture Gains
11. Transport Properties of Moist Air
12. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Standard Atmospheric Data for Altitudes to 30,000 ft
Table 2 Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Moist and Dry Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure, 14.696 psia
Table 3 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation
Table 4 Calculated Diffusion Coefficients for Water/Air at 14.696 psia Barometric Pressure
Figures
Fig. 1 ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1
Fig. 2 Schematic of Device for Heating Moist Air
Fig. 3 Schematic Solution for Example 2
Fig. 4 Schematic of Device for Cooling Moist Air
Fig. 5 Schematic Solution for Example 3
Fig. 6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams
Fig. 7 Schematic Solution for Example 4
Fig. 8 Schematic Showing Injection of Water into Moist Air
Fig. 9 Schematic Solution for Example 5
Fig. 10 Schematic of Air Conditioned Space
Fig. 11 Schematic Solution for Example 6
Fig. 12 Viscosity of Moist Air
Fig. 13 Thermal Conductivity of Moist Air
---CHAPTER 02: THERMODYNAMICS AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES---
1. Thermodynamics
1.1 Stored Energy
1.2 Energy in Transition
1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics
1.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics
1.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of Refrigeration Cycles
1.6 Equations of State
1.7 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties
Phase Equilibria for Multicomponent Systems
2. Compression Refrigeration Cycles
2.1 Carnot Cycle
2.2 Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using a Pure Refrigerant or Azeotropic Mixture
2.3 Lorenz Refrigeration Cycle
2.4 Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using Zeotropic Refrigerant Mixture
2.5 Multistage Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycles
2.6 Actual Refrigeration Systems
3. Absorption Refrigeration Cycles
3.1 Ideal Thermal Cycle
3.2 Working-Fluid Phase Change Constraints
Temperature Glide
3.3 Working Fluids
3.4 Effect of Fluid Properties on Cycle Performance
3.5 Absorption Cycle Representations
3.6 Conceptualizing the Cycle
3.7 Absorption Cycle Modeling
Analysis and Performance Simulation
Double-Effect Cycle
3.8 Ammonia/Water Absorption Cycles
4. Adsorption Refrigeration Systems
4.1 Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Thermodynamic Property Data for Example 2
Table 2 Thermodynamic Property Values for Example 4
Table 3 Measured and Computed Thermodynamic Properties of R-22 for Example 5
Table 4 Energy Transfers and Irreversibility Rates for Refrigeration System in Example 5
Table 5 Refrigerant/Absorbent Pairs
Table 6 Assumptions for Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Model (Figure 20)
Table 7 Design Parameters and Operating Conditions for Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
Table 8 Simulation Results for Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
Table 9 Inputs and Assumptions for Double-Effect Water-Lithium Bromide Model (Figure 21)
Table 10 State Point Data for Double-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Cycle (Figure 21)
Table 11 Inputs and Assumptions for Single-Effect Ammonia/Water Cycle (Figure 22)
Table 12 State Point Data for Single-Effect Ammonia/Water Cycle (Figure 22)
Figures
Fig. 1 Energy Flows in General Thermodynamic System
Fig. 2 Mixture of i and j Components in Constant-Pressure Container
Fig. 3 Temperature-Concentration (T-x) Diagramfor Zeotropic Mixture
Fig. 4 Azeotropic Behavior Shown on T-x Diagram
Fig. 5 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
Fig. 6 Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Carnot Refrigeration Cycle of Example 1
Fig. 7 Carnot Vapor Compression Cycle
Fig. 8 Theoretical Single-Stage Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Fig. 9 Schematic p-h Diagram for Example 2
Fig. 10 Areas on T- s Diagram Representing Refrigerating Effect and Work Supplied for Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle
Fig. 11 Processes of Lorenz Refrigeration Cycle
Fig. 12 Areas on T-s Diagram Representing Refrigerating Effect and Work Supplied for Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using Zeotropic Mixture as Refrigerant
Fig. 13 Schematic and Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Dual-Compression, Dual-Expansion Cycle of Example 4
Fig. 14 Schematic of Real, Direct-Expansion, Single-Stage Mechanical Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System
Fig. 15 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram of Actual System and Theoretical Single-Stage System Operating Between Same Inlet Air Temperatures tR and t0
Fig. 16 Thermal Cycles
Fig. 17 Single-Effect Absorption Cycle
Fig. 18 Double-Effect Absorption Cycle
Fig. 19 Generic Triple-Effect Cycles
Fig. 20 Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Cycle Dühring Plot
Fig. 21 Double-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Cycle with State Points
Fig. 22 Single-Effect Ammonia/Water Absorption Cycle
--- CHAPTER 03: FLUID FLOW ---
1. Fluid Properties
Density
2. Basic Relations of Fluid Dynamics
Continuity in a Pipe or Duct
Bernoulli Equation and Pressure Variation in Flow Direction
Laminar Flow
Turbulence
3. Basic Flow Processes
Wall Friction
Boundary Layer
Flow Patterns with Separation
Drag Forces on Bodies or Struts
Nonisothermal Effects
4. Flow Analysis
Generalized Bernoulli Equation
Conduit Friction
Valve, Fitting, and Transition Losses
Control Valve Characterization for Liquids
Incompressible Flow in Systems
Flow Measurement
Unsteady Flow
Compressibility
Compressible Conduit Flow
Cavitation
5. Noise in Fluid Flow
6. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Drag Coefficients
Table 2 Effective Roughness of Conduit Surfaces
Table 3 Fitting Loss Coefficients of Turbulent Flow
Figures
Fig. 1 Velocity Profiles and Gradients in Shear Flows
Fig. 2 Dimensions for Steady, Fully Developed Laminar Flow Equations
Fig. 3 Velocity Fluctuation at Point in Turbulent Flow
Fig. 4 Velocity Profiles of Flow in Pipes
Fig. 5 Pipe Factor for Flow in Conduits
Fig. 6 Flow in Conduit Entrance Region
Fig. 7 Boundary Layer Flow to Separation
Fig. 8 Geometric Separation, Flow Development, and Loss in Flow Through Orifice
Fig. 9 Examples of Geometric Separation Encountered in Flows in Conduits
Fig. 10 Separation in Flow in Diffuser
Fig. 11 Effect of Viscosity Variation on Velocity Profile of Laminar Flow in Pipe
Fig. 12 Blower and Duct System for Example 1
Fig. 13 Relation Between Friction Factor and Reynolds Number
Fig. 14 Diagram for Example 2
Fig. 15 Valve Action in Pipeline
Fig. 16 Effect of Duct Length on Damper Action
Fig. 17 Matching of Pump or Blower to System
Fig. 18 Differential Pressure Flowmeters
Fig. 19 Flowmeter Coefficients
Fig. 20 Temporal Increase in Velocity Following Sudden Application of Pressure
Fig. 21 Cavitation in Flows in Orifice or Valve
--- CHAPTER 04: HEAT TRANSFER ---
1. Heat Transfer Processes
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Combined Radiation and Convection
Contact or Interface Resistance
Heat Flux
Overall Resistance and Heat Transfer Coefficient
2. Thermal Conduction
One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction
Two- and Three-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction: Shape Factors
Extended Surfaces
Transient Conduction
3. Thermal Radiation
Blackbody Radiation
Actual Radiation
Angle Factor
Radiant Exchange Between Opaque Surfaces
Radiation in Gases
4. Thermal Convection
Forced Convection
5. Heat Exchangers
Mean Temperature Difference Analysis
NTU-Effectiveness (e) Analysis
Plate Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger Transients
6. Heat Transfer Augmentation
Passive Techniques
Active Techniques
7. Symbols
Greek
Subscripts
References
Bibliography
Fins
Heat Exchangers
Heat Transfer, General
Tables
Table 1 Heat Transfer Coefficients by Convection Type
Table 2 One-Dimensional Conduction Shape Factors
Table 3 Multidimensional Conduction Shape Factors
Table 4 Values of c1 and 1 in Equations (14) to (17)
Table 5 Emissivities and Absorptivities of Some Surfaces
Table 6 Emissivity of CO2 and Water Vapor in Air at 75°F
Table 7 Emissivity of Moist Air and CO2 in Typical Room
Table 8 Forced-Convection Correlations
Table 9 Natural Convection Correlations
Table 10 Equations for Computing Heat Exchanger Effectiveness, N = NTU
Table 11 Single-Phase Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for Plate Exchangers
Table 12 Equations for Augmented Forced Convection (Single Phase)
Table 13 Microchannel Dimensions
Table 14 Active Heat Transfer Augmentation Techniques and
Most Relevant Heat Transfer Modes
Table 15 Worldwide Status of Active Techniques
Table 16 Selected Studies on Mechanical Aids, Suction, and Injection
Table 17 Selected Studies on Rotation
Table 18 Selected Previous Work with EHD Enhancement of Single-Phase Heat Transfer
Figures
Fig. 1 (A) Conduction and (B) Convection
Fig. 2 Interface Resistance Across Two Layers
Fig. 3 Thermal Circuit
Fig. 4 Thermal Circuit Diagram for Insulated Water Pipe
Fig. 5 Efficiency of Annular Fins of Constant Thickness
Fig. 6 Efficiency of Annular Fins with Constant Metal Area for Heat Flow
Fig. 7 Efficiency of Several Types of Straight Fins
Fig. 8 Efficiency of Four Types of Spines
Fig. 9 Rectangular Tube Array
Fig. 10 Hexagonal Tube Array
Fig. 11 Transient Temperatures for Infinite Slab, m = 1/Bi
Fig. 12 Transient Temperatures for Infinite Cylinder, m = 1/Bi
Fig. 13 Transient Temperatures for Sphere, m = 1/Bi
Fig. 14 Solid Cylinder Exposed to Fluid
Fig. 15 Radiation Angle Factors for Various Geometries
Fig. 16 Diagram for Example 8
Fig. 17 Diagrams for Example 9
Fig. 18 External Flow Boundary Layer Build-up
(Vertical Scale Magnified)
Fig. 19 Boundary Layer Build-up in Entrance Region of
Tube or Channel
Fig. 20 Typical Dimensionless Representation of Forced-
Convection Heat Transfer
Fig. 21 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Flow of
Water Inside Tubes
Fig. 22 Regimes of Free, Forced, and Mixed Convection—
Flow in Horizontal Tubes
Fig. 23 Diagram for Example 12
Fig. 24 Cross Section of Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger in Example 13
Fig. 25 Plate Parameters
Fig. 26 Overall Air-Side Thermal Resistance and Pressure
Drop for One-Row Coils
Fig. 27 Typical Tube-Side Enhancements
Fig. 28 Turbulators for Fire-Tube Boilers
Fig. 29 Enhanced Surfaces for Gases
Fig. 30 Typical Refrigerant and Air-Side Flow Passages in Compact Automotive Microchannel Heat Exchanger
Fig. 31 Microchannel Dimensions
Fig. 32 Ratio of Heat Transfer Coefficient with EHD
to Coefficient Without EHD as Function of Distance
from Front of Module
Fig. 33 Heat Transfer Coefficients (With and Without EHD)
as Functions of Reynolds Number
--- CHAPTER 05: TWO-PHASE FLOW ---
1. Boiling
Boiling and Pool Boiling in Natural Convection Systems
Maximum Heat Flux and Film Boiling
Boiling/Evaporation in Tube Bundles
Forced-Convection Evaporation in Tubes
Boiling in Plate Heat Exchangers (PHEs)
2. Condensing
Condensation on Inner Surface of Tubes
Other Impurities
3. Pressure Drop
Friedel Correlation
Lockhart and Martinelli Correlation
Grönnerud Correlation
Müller-Steinhagen and Heck Correlation
Wallis Correlation
Recommendations
Pressure Drop in Microchannels
Pressure Drop in Plate Heat Exchangers
4. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Equations for Natural Convection Boiling Heat Transfer
Table 2 Correlations for Local Heat Transfer Coefficients in Horizontal Tube Bundles
Table 3 Equations for Forced Convection Boiling in Tubes
Table 4 Heat Transfer Coefficient/Nusselt Number Correlations for Film-Type Condensation
Table 5 Constants in Equation (29d) for Different Void Fraction Correlations
Table 6 Constant and Exponents in Correlation of Lee and Lee (2001)
Figures
Fig. 1 Characteristic Pool Boiling Curve
Fig. 2 Effect of Surface Roughness on Temperature in Pool Boiling of Pentane
Fig. 3 Correlation of Pool Boiling Data in Terms of Reduced Pressure
Fig. 4 Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficients for Flooded Evaporator
Fig. 5 Flow Regimes in Typical Smooth Horizontal Tube Evaporator
Fig. 7 Film Boiling Correlation
Fig. 8 Origin of Noncondensable Resistance
Fig. 9 Qualitative Pressure Drop Characteristics of Two-Phase Flow Regime
Fig. 10 Pressure Drop Characteristics of Two-Phase Flow: Variation of Two-Phase Multiplier with
Lockhart-Martinelli Parameter
Fig. 11 Schematic Flow Representation of a Typical Force-Fed Microchannel Heat Sink (FFMHS)
Fig. 12 Thermal Performance Comparison of Different High-Heat-Flux Cooling Technologies
Fig. 13 Scanning Electron Microscope Images of Various Nanostructures: (A) Silicon Nanopillars (Enright et al. 2012),(B) High-Aspect-Ratio Silicon Nanopillars (Enright et al. 2012), (C) Silicon Micropost-Pyramids with Silicon Nanograss onSurface (Chen et al. 2011), (D) CuO Nanoblades (Miljkovic et al. 2013), (E) Tobacco Mosaic Virus Template Nanostructure (McCarthy et al. 2012), (F) Zinc Oxide Nanowires (Miljkovic et al. 2013), (G) Boehmitized Aluminum (Kim et al. 2013) and(H) Carbon Nanotubes (Enright et al. 2014)
--- CHAPTER 06 : MASS TRANSFER ---
1. Molecular Diffusion
Fick’s Law
Fick’s Law for Dilute Mixtures
Fick’s Law for Mass Diffusion Through Solids or Stagnant Fluids (Stationary Media)
Fick’s Law for Ideal Gases with Negligible Temperature Gradient
Diffusion Coefficient
Diffusion of One Gas Through a Second Stagnant Gas
Equimolar Counterdiffusion
Molecular Diffusion in Liquids and Solids
2. Convection of Mass
Mass Transfer Coefficient
Analogy Between Convective Heat and Mass Transfer
Lewis Relation
3. Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer Between Water-Wetted Surfaces and Air
Enthalpy Potential
Basic Equations for Direct-Contact Equipment
Air Washers
Cooling Towers
Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils
4. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Mass Diffusivities for Gases in Air
Table 2 Material Values for Example 4
Figures
Fig. 1 Diffusion of Water Vapor Through Stagnant Air
Fig. 2 Pressure Profiles for Diffusion of Water Vapor Through Stagnant Air
Fig. 3 Equimolar Counterdiffusion
Fig. 4 Composite Wall for Example 4
Fig. 5 Nomenclature for Convective Mass Transfer from External Surface at Location x Where Surface Is Impermeable to Gas A
Fig. 6 Nomenclature for Convective Mass Transfer from Internal Surface Impermeable to Gas A
Fig. 7 Water-Saturated Flat Plate in Flowing Airstream
Fig. 8 Mass Transfer from Flat Plate
Fig. 9 Vaporization and Absorption in Wetted-Wall Column
Fig. 10 Mass Transfer from Single Cylinders in Crossflow
Fig. 11 Mass Transfer from Single Spheres
Fig. 12 Sensible Heat Transfer j-Factors for Parallel Plate Exchanger
Fig. 13 Air Washer Spray Chamber
Fig. 14 Air Washer Humidification Process on Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 15 Graphical Solution for Air-State Path in Parallel-Flow Air Washer
Fig. 16 Graphical Solution of  dh/(hi – h)
Fig. 17 Graphical Solution for Air-State Path in Dehumidifying Coil with Constant Refrigerant Temperature
--- CHAPTER 07: FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL ---
1. GENERAL
1.1 Terminology
1.2 Types of Control Action
Two-Position Action
Modulating Control
Combinations of Two-Position and Modulating
1.3 Classification of Control Components by Energy Source
Computers for Automatic Control
2. CONTROL COMPONENTS
2.1 Control Devices
Valves
Dampers
Pneumatic Positive (Pilot) Positioners
2.2 Sensors and Transmitters
Temperature Sensors
Humidity Sensors and Transmitters
Pressure Transmitters and Transducers
Flow Rate Sensors
Indoor Air Quality Sensors
Lighting Level Sensors
Power Sensing and Transmission
2.3 Controllers
Digital Controllers
Electric/Electronic Controllers
Pneumatic Receiver-Controllers
Thermostats
2.4 Auxiliary Control Devices
Relays
Equipment Status
Other Switches
Time Switches
Transducers
Other Auxiliary Control Devices
3. COMMUNICATION NETWORKS FOR BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
3.1 Communication Protocols
3.2 OSI Network Model
3.3 Network Structure
BAS Three-Tier Network Architecture
Connections Between BAS Networks and Other Computer Networks
Transmission Media
3.4 Specifying Building Automation System Networks
Communication Tasks
3.5 Approaches to Interoperability
Standard Protocols
Gateways and Interfaces
4. SPECIFYING BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
5. COMMISSIONING
5.1 Tuning
Tuning Proportional, PI, and PID Controllers
Tuning Digital Controllers
Computer Modeling of Control Systems
5.2 Codes and Standards
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Comparison of Fiber Optic Technology
Table 2 Some Standard Communication Protocols Applicable to BAS
Figures
Fig. 1 Example of Feedback Control: Discharge Air Temperature Control
Fig. 2 Block Diagram of Discharge Air Temperature Control
Fig. 3 Process Subjected to Step Input
Fig. 4 Two-Position Control
Fig. 5 Proportional Control Showing Variations in Controlled Variable as Load Changes
Fig. 6 Proportional plus Integral (PI) Control
Fig. 7 Floating Control Showing Variations in Controlled Variable as Load Changes
Fig. 8 Typical Three-Way Mixing and Diverting Globe Valves
Fig. 9 Typical Single- and Double-Seated Two-Way Globe Valves
Fig. 10 Typical Flow Characteristics of Valves
Fig. 11 Typical Valve Authority Performance Curves for Linear Devices at Various Percentages of Total System Pressure Drop
Fig. 12 Typical Multiblade Dampers
Fig. 13 Characteristic Curves of Installed Dampers in an AMCA 5.3 Geometry
Fig. 14 Inherent Curves for Partially Ducted and Louvered Dampers (RP-1157)
Fig. 15 Inherent Curves for Ducted and Plenum-Mounted Dampers (RP-1157)
Fig. 16 Dead-Band Thermostat
Fig. 17 Electronic and Pneumatic Control Components Combined with Electronic-to-Pneumatic Transducer (EPT)
Fig. 18 Retrofit of Existing Pneumatic Control with Electronic Sensors and Controllers
Fig. 19 OSI Reference Model
Fig. 20 Hierarchical Network for Three-Tier System Architecture
Fig. 21 Response of Discharge Air Temperature to Step Change in Set Points at Various Proportional Constants with No Integral Action
Fig. 22 Open-Loop Step Response Versus Time
Fig. 23 Response of Discharge Air Temperature to Step Change in Set Points at Various Integral Constants with Fixed Proportional Constant
--- CHAPTER 08: SOUND AND VIBRATION ---
1. Acoustical Design Objective
2. Characteristics of Sound
Levels
Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level
Frequency
Speed
Wavelength
Sound Power and Sound Power Level
Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level
Combining Sound Levels
Resonances
Absorption and Reflection of Sound
Room Acoustics
Acoustic Impedance
3. Measuring Sound
Instrumentation
Time Averaging
Spectra and Analysis Bandwidths
Sound Measurement Basics
Measurement of Room Sound Pressure Level
Measurement of Acoustic Intensity
4. Determining Sound Power
Free-Field Method
Reverberation Room Method
Progressive Wave (In-Duct) Method
Sound Intensity Method
Measurement Bandwidths for Sound Power
5. Converting from Sound Power to Sound Pressure
6. Sound Transmission Paths
Spreading Losses
Direct Versus Reverberant Fields
Airborne Transmission
Ductborne Transmission
Room-to-Room Transmission
Structureborne Transmission
Flanking Transmission
7. Typical Sources of Sound
Source Strength
Directivity of Sources
Acoustic Nearfield
8. Controlling Sound
Terminology
Enclosures and Barriers
Partitions
Sound Attenuation in Ducts and Plenums
Standards for Testing Duct Silencers
9. System Effects
10. Human Response to Sound
Noise
Predicting Human Response to Sound
Sound Quality
Loudness
Acceptable Frequency Spectrum
11. Sound Rating Systems and Acoustical Design Goals
A-Weighted Sound Level (dBA)
Noise Criteria (NC) Method
Room Criterion (RC) Method
Criteria Selection Guidelines
12. Fundamentals of Vibration
Single-Degree-of-Freedom Model
Mechanical Impedance
Natural Frequency
Practical Application for Nonrigid Foundations
13. Vibration Measurement Basics
14. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Typical Sound Pressures and Sound Pressure Levels
Table 2 Examples of Sound Power Outputs and Sound Power Levels
Table 3 Combining Two Sound Levels
Table 4 Midband and Approximate Upper and Lower Cutoff Frequencies for Octave and 1/3 Octave Band Filters
Table 5 A-Weighting for 1/3 Octave and Octave Bands
Table 6 Combining Decibels to Determine Overall Sound Pressure Level
Table 7 Guidelines for Determining Equipment Sound Levels in the Presence of Contaminating Background Sound
Table 8 Subjective Effect of Changes in Sound Pressure
Level, Broadband Sounds (Frequency  250 Hz)
Figures
Fig. 1 Curves Showing A- and C-Weighting Responses for Sound Level Meters
Fig. 2 Sound Transmission Loss Spectra for Single Layers of Some Common Materials
Fig. 3 Contour for Determining Partition’s STC
Fig. 4 Free-Field Equal Loudness Contours for Pure Tones
Fig. 5 Equal Loudness Contours for Relatively Narrow Bands of Random Noise
Fig. 6 Frequencies at Which Various Types of Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Generally Control Sound Spectra
Fig. 7 NC (Noise Criteria) Curves and Sample Spectrum (Curve with Symbols)
Fig. 8 Single-Degree-of-Freedom System
Fig. 9 Vibration Transmissibility T as Function of fd / fn
Fig. 10 Effect of Mass on Transmitted Force
Fig. 11 Two-Degrees-of-Freedom System
Fig. 12 Transmissibility T as Function of fd/fn1 with k2/k1 = 2 and M2/M1 = 0.5
Fig. 13 Transmissibility T as Function of fd/fn1 with k2/k1 = 10 and M2/M1 = 40
--- CHAPTER 09: THERMAL COMFORT ---
1. Human Thermoregulation
2. Energy Balance
3. Thermal Exchanges with Environment
Body Surface Area
Sensible Heat Loss from Skin
Evaporative Heat Loss from Skin
Respiratory Losses
Alternative Formulations
Total Skin Heat Loss
4. Engineering Data and Measurements
Metabolic Rate and Mechanical Efficiency
Heat Transfer Coefficients
Clothing Insulation and Permeation Efficiency
Total Evaporative Heat Loss
Environmental Parameters
5. Conditions for Thermal Comfort
Thermal Complaints
6. Thermal Comfort and Task Performance
7. Thermal Nonuniform Conditions and Local Discomfort
Asymmetric Thermal Radiation
Draft
Vertical Air Temperature Difference
Warm or Cold Floors
8. Secondary Factors Affecting Comfort
Day-to-Day Variations
Age
Adaptation
Sex
Seasonal and Circadian Rhythms
9. Prediction of Thermal Comfort
Steady-State Energy Balance
Two-Node Model
Multisegment Thermal Physiology and Comfort Models
Adaptive Models
Zones of Comfort and Discomfort
10. Environmental Indices
Effective Temperature
Humid Operative Temperature
Heat Stress Index
Index of Skin Wettedness
Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature
Wet-Globe Temperature
Wind Chill Index
11. Special Environments
Infrared Heating
Comfort Equations for Radiant Heating
Personal Environmental Control (PEC) Systems
Hot and Humid Environments
Extremely Cold Environments
12. Symbols
Codes and Standards
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Parameters Used to Describe Clothing
Table 2 Relationships Between Clothing Parameters
Table 3 Skin Heat Loss Equations
Table 4 Typical Metabolic Heat Generation for
Various Activities
Table 5 Heart Rate and Oxygen Consumption at
Different Activity Levels
Table 6 Equations for Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients
Table 7 Typical Insulation and Permeation Efficiency Values
for Western Clothing Ensembles
Table 8 Insulation and Permeability Values for a Selection of
Non-Western Clothing Ensembles
Table 9 Garment Insulation Values
Table 10 Equations for Predicting Thermal Sensation Y of
Men, Women, and Men and Women Combined
Table 11 Model Parameters
Table 12 Evaluation of Heat Stress Index
Table 13 Equivalent Wind Chill Temperatures of Cold Environments
Figures
Fig. 1 Thermal Interaction of Human Body and Environment
Fig. 2 Constant Skin Heat Loss Line and Its Relationship to toh and ET
Fig. 3 Mean Value of Angle Factor Between Seated Person and Horizontal or Vertical Rectangle when Person Is Rotated Around Vertical Axis
Fig. 4 Analytical Formulas for Calculating Angle Factor for Small Plane Element
Fig. 5 ASHRAE Summer and Winter Comfort Zones
Fig. 6 Air Speed to Offset Temperatures Above Warm-Temperature Boundaries of Figure 5
Fig. 7 Predicted Rate of Unsolicited Thermal Operating Complaints
Fig. 8 Relative Performance of Office Work Performance versus Deviation from Optimal Comfort Temperature Tc
Fig. 9 Percentage of People Expressing Discomfort Caused by Asymmetric Radiation
Fig. 10 Percentage of People Dissatisfied as Function of Mean Air Velocity
Fig. 11 Draft Conditions Dissatisfying 15% of Population (PD = 15%)
Fig. 12 Percentage of Seated People Dissatisfied as Function of Air Temperature Difference Between Head and Ankles
Fig. 13 Percentage of People Dissatisfied as Function of Floor Temperature
Fig. 14 Air Velocities and Operative Temperatures at 50% rh Necessary for Comfort (PMV = 0) of Persons in Summer Clothing at Various Levels of Activity
Fig. 15 Air Temperatures and Mean Radiant Temperatures Necessary for Comfort (PMV = 0) of Sedentary Persons in Summer Clothing at 50% rh
Fig. 16 Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) as Function of Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
Fig. 17 Effect of Environmental Conditions on Physiological Variables
Fig. 18 Effect of Thermal Environment on Discomfort
Fig. 19 Effective Temperature ET and Skin Wettedness w
Fig. 20 Recommended Heat Stress Exposure Limits for Heat Acclimatized Workers
Fig. 21 Variation in Skin Reflection and Absorptivity for Blackbody Heat Sources
Fig. 22 Comparing Thermal Inertia of Fat, Bone, Moist Muscle, and Excised Skin to That of Leather and Water
Fig. 23 Thermal Inertias of Excised, Bloodless, and Normal Living Skin
Fig. 24 Recommended Temperature Set Points for HVAC with PEC Systems and Energy Savings from Extending HVAC Temperature Set Points
Fig. 25 Schematic Design of Heat Stress and Heat Disorders
Fig. 26 Acclimatization to Heat Resulting from Daily Exposure of Five Subjects to Extremely Hot Room
--- CHAPTER 10: INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ---
1. Background
1.1 Health Sciences Relevant to Indoor Environment
Epidemiology and Biostatistics
Industrial, Occupational, and Environmental Medicine or Hygiene
Microbiology
Toxicology
1.2 Hazard Recognition, Analysis, and Control
Hazard Control
2. Airborne Contaminants
2.1 Particles
Industrial Environments
Synthetic Vitreous Fibers
Combustion Nuclei
Particles in Nonindustrial Environments
Bioaerosols
2.2 Gaseous Contaminants
Industrial Environments
Nonindustrial Environments
3. Physical Agents
3.1 Thermal Environment
Range of Healthy Living Conditions
Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
Seasonal Patterns
Climate Change
Increased Deaths in Heat Waves
Effects of Thermal Environment on Specific Diseases
Injury from Hot and Cold Surfaces
3.2 Electrical Hazards
3.3 Mechanical Energies
Vibration
Standard Limits
Sound and Noise
3.4 Electromagnetic Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
Nonionizing Radiation
3.5 Ergonomics
3.6 Outdoor Air Ventilation and Health
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Selected Illnesses Related to Exposure in Buildings
Table 2 OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for Particlesa
Table 3 Primary and Secondary Standards for Particle Pollution
Table 4 Pathogens with Potential for Airborne Transmission
Table 5 Comparison of Indoor Environment Standards and Guidelines
Table 6 Selected SVOCs Found in Indoor Environments
Table 7 Indoor Concentrations and Body Burden of Selected Semivolatile Organic Compounds
Table 8 Inorganic Gas Comparative Criteria
Table 9 Approximate Surface Temperature Limits to Avoid Pain and Injury
Table 10 Ratios of Acceptable to Threshold Vibration Levels
Table 11 Energy, Wavelength, and Frequency Ranges for Electromagnetic Radiation
Table 12 2015 Action Levels for Radon Concentration Indoors
Figures
Fig. 1 Related Human Sensory, Physiological, and Health Responses for Prolonged Exposure
Fig. 2 Isotherms for Comfort, Discomfort, Physiological Strain, Effective Temperature (ET), and Heat Stroke Danger Threshold
Fig. 3 Factors Affecting Acceptability of Building Vibration
Fig. 4 Acceleration Perception Thresholds and Acceptability Limits for Horizontal Oscillations
Fig. 5 Median Perception Thresholds to Horizontal (Solid Lines) and Vertical (Dashed Line) Vibrations
Fig. 6 Mechanical Energy Spectrum
Fig. 7 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Fig. 8 Maximum Permissible Levels of Radio Frequency Radiation for Human Exposure
--- CHAPTER 11: AIR CONTAMINANTS ---
1. Classes of Air Contaminants
2. Particulate Contaminants
2.1 Particulate Matter
Solid Particles
Liquid Particles
Complex Particles
Sizes of Airborne Particles
Particle Size Distribution
Units of Measurement
Harmful Effects of Particulate Contaminants
Measurement of Airborne Particles
Typical Particle Levels
Bioaerosols
Controlling Exposures to Particulate Matter
3. Gaseous Contaminants
Harmful Effects of Gaseous Contaminants
Units of Measurement
Measurement of Gaseous Contaminants
3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds
Controlling Exposure to VOCs
3.2 Semivolatile Organic Compounds
3.3 Inorganic Gases
Controlling Exposures to Inorganic Gases
4. Air Contaminants by Source
4.1 Outdoor Air Contaminants
4.2 Industrial Air Contaminants
4.3 Commercial, Institutional, and Residential Indoor Air Contaminants
4.4 Flammable Gases and Vapors
4.5 Combustible Dusts
4.6 Radioactive Air Contaminants
Radon
4.7 Soil Gases
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Approximate Particle Sizes and Time to Settle 1 m
Table 2 Relation of Screen Mesh to Sieve Opening Size
Table 3 Common Molds on Water-Damaged Building Materials
Table 4 Example Case of Airborne Fungi in Building and Outdoor Air
Table 5 Major Chemical Families of Gaseous Air Contaminants
Table 6 Characteristics of Selected Gaseous Air Contaminants
Table 7 Gaseous Contaminant Sample Collection Techniques
Table 8 Analytical Methods to Measure Gaseous Contaminant Concentration
Table 9 Classification of Indoor Organic Contaminants by Volatility
Table 10 VOCs Commonly Found in Buildings
Table 11 Typical U.S. Outdoor Concentrations of Selected Gaseous Air Contaminants
Table 12 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for the United States
Table 13 Sources and Indoor and Outdoor Concentrations of Selected Indoor Contaminants
Table 14 Flammable Limits of Some Gases and Vapors
Figures
Fig. 1 Typical Outdoor Aerosol Composition by Particle Size Fraction
Fig. 2 Relative Deposition Efficiencies of Different-Sized Particles in the Three Main Regions of the Human Respiratory System, Calculated for Moderate Activity Level
Fig. 3 Sizes of Indoor Particles
Fig. 4 Typical Urban Outdoor Distributions of Ultrafine or Nuclei (n) Particles, Fine or Accumulation (a) Particles, and Coarse (c) Particles
--- CHAPTER 12: ODORS ---
1. Odor Sources
2. Sense of Smell
Olfactory Stimuli
Anatomy and Physiology
Olfactory Acuity
3. Factors Affecting Odor Perception
Humidity and Temperature
Sorption and Release of Odors
Emotional Responses to Odors
4. Odor Sensation Attributes
Detectability
Intensity
Character
Hedonics
5. Dilution of Odors by Ventilation
6. Odor Concentration
Analytical Measurement
Odor Units
7. Olf Units
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Odor Thresholds, ACGIH TLVs, and TLV/Threshold Ratios of Selected Gaseous Air Pollutants
Table 2 Examples of Category Scales
Table 3 Sensory Pollution Load from Different Pollution Sources
Figures
Fig. 1 Standardized Function Relating Perceived Magnitude
to Concentration of 1-Butanol
Fig. 2 Labeled Magnitude Scale
Fig. 3 Panelist Using Dravnieks Binary Dilution Olfactometer
Fig. 4 Matching Functions Obtained with Dravnieks
Olfactometer
Fig. 5 Percentage of Dissatisfied Persons as a Function of Ventilation Rate per Standard Person (i.e., per Olf)
--- CHAPTER 13: INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL MODELING ---
1. Computational Fluid Dynamics
Mathematical and Numerical Background
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Approaches
Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
Direction Numerical Simulation (DNS)
1.1 Meshing for Computational Fluid Dynamics
Structured Grids
Unstructured Grids
Grid Quality
Immersed Boundary Grid Generation
Grid Independence
1.2 Boundary Conditions for Computational Fluid Dynamics
Inlet Boundary Conditions
Outlet Boundary Conditions
Wall/Surface Boundary Conditions
Symmetry Surface Boundary Conditions
Fixed Sources and Sinks
Modeling Considerations
1.3 CFD Modeling Approaches
Planning
Dimensional Accuracy and Faithfulness to Details
CFD Simulation Steps
1.4 Verification, Validation, and Reporting Results
Verification
Validation
Reporting CFD Results
2. Multizone Network Airflow and Contaminant Transport Modeling
2.1 Multizone Airflow Modeling
Theory
Solution Techniques
2.2 Contaminant Transport Modeling
Fundamentals
Solution Techniques
2.3 Multizone Modeling Approaches
Simulation Planning
Steps
2.4 Verification and Validation
Analytical Verification
Intermodel Comparison
Empirical Validation
2.5 Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Summary of Multizone Model Validation Reports
Table 2 Leakage Values of Model Airflow Components
Figures
Fig. 1 (A) Grid Point Distribution and (B) Control Volume Around Grid Point P
Fig. 2 Two-Dimensional CFD Structured Grid Model for Flow Through 90° Elbow
Fig. 3 Block-Structured Grid for Two-Dimensional Flow Simulation Through 90° Elbow Connected to Rectangular Duct
Fig. 4 Unstructured Grid for Two-Dimensional Meshing Scheme Flow Simulation Through 90° Elbow Connected to Rectangular Duct
Fig. 5 Circle Meshing
Fig. 6 Boundary Condition Locations Around Diffuser Used in Box Method
Fig. 7 Prescribed Velocity Field Near Supply Opening
Fig. 8 Simplified Boundary Conditions for Supply Diffuser Modeling for Square Diffuser
Fig. 9 Typical Velocity Distribution in Near-Wall Region
Fig. 10 Wall Surface Temperature Ts, Influenced by Conduction Tw , Radiation Trad , and Local Air Temperature TP
Fig. 11 Combination CFD and BEPS
Fig. 12 Duct with Symmetry Geometry
Fig. 13 Airflow Path Diagram
Fig. 14 Floor Plan of Living Area Level of Manufactured House
Fig. 15 Schematic of Ventilation System and Envelope Leakage
Fig. 16 Multizone Representation of First Floor
Fig. 17 Multizone Representation of Duct work in Belly and Crawlspace
Fig. 18 Test Simulation of Concentration of Tracer Gas Decay in Manufactured House 30 min After Injection
Fig. 19 Measured and Predicted Air Change Rates for Wind Speeds less than 4.5 mph
--- CHAPTER 14: CLIMATIC DESIGN INFORMATION ---
1. Climatic Design Conditions
Annual Design Conditions
Monthly Design Conditions
Data Sources
Calculation of Design Conditions
Differences from Previously Published Design Conditions
Applicability and Characteristics of Design Conditions
2. Calculating Clear-sky Solar Radiation
Solar Constant and Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
Equation of Time and Solar Time
Declination
Sun Position
Air Mass
Clear-Sky Solar Radiation
3. Transposition to Receiving Surfaces of Various Orientations
Solar Angles Related to Receiving Surfaces
Calculation of Clear-Sky Solar Irradiance Incident On Receiving Surface
4. Generating Design-Day Data
5. Estimation of Degree-Days
Monthly Degree-Days
Annual Degree-Days
6. Representativeness of Data and Sources of Uncertainty
Representativeness of Data
Uncertainty from Variation in Length of Record
Effects of Climate Change
Episodes Exceeding the Design Dry-Bulb Temperature
7. Other Sources of Climatic Information
Joint Frequency Tables of Psychrometric Conditions
Degree Days and Climate Normals
Typical Year Data Sets
Sequences of Extreme Temperature and Humidity Durations
Global Weather Data Source Web Page
Observational Data Sets
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Design Conditions for Atlanta, GA, USA (see Table 1A for Nomenclature)
Table 2 Approximate Astronomical Data for 21st Day of Each Month
Table 3 Time Zones in United States and Canada
Table 4 Surface Orientations and Azimuths, Measured from South
Table 5 Ground Reflectance of Foreground Surfaces
Table 6 Fraction of Daily Temperature Range
Table 7 Input Sources for Design-Day Generation
Table 8 Derived Hourly Temperatures for Atlanta, GA for July for 5% Design Conditions, °F
Table 9 Locations Representing Various Climate Types
Figures
Fig. 1 Locations of Weather Stations
Fig. 2 Motion of Earth around Sun
Fig. 3 Solar Angles for Vertical and Horizontal Surfaces
Fig. 4 Uncertainty versus Period Length for Various Dry-Bulb Temperatures, by Climate Type
Fig. 5 Frequency and Duration of Episodes Exceeding Design Dry-Bulb Temperature for Indianapolis, IN
--- CHAPTER 15: FENESTRATION ---
1. Fenestration Components
1.1 Glazing Units
1.2 Framing
1.3 Shading
2. Determining Fenestration Energy Flow
3. U-Factor (Thermal Transmittance)
Comparison Between Area-Weighted and Length-Weighted Methods
3.1 Determining Fenestration U-Factors
Center-of-Glass U-Factor
Edge-of-Glass U-Factor
Frame U-Factor
Curtain Wall Construction
3.2 Surface and Cavity Heat Transfer Coefficients
3.3 Representative U-Factors for Doors
4. Solar Heat Gain and Visible Transmittance
4.1 Solar-Optical Properties of Glazing
Optical Properties of Single Glazing Layers
Optical Properties of Glazing Systems
4.2 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
Calculation of Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
Diffuse Radiation
Solar Gain Through Frame and Other Opaque Elements
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient, Visible Transmittance, and Spectrally Averaged Solar-Optical Property Values
Airflow Windows
Skylights
Glass Block Walls
Plastic Materials for Glazing
4.3 Calculation of Solar Heat Gain
Opaque Fenestration Elements
5. Shading and Fenestration Attachments
5.1 Shading
Overhangs and Glazing Unit Recess: Horizontal and Vertical Projections
5.2 Fenestration Attachments
Simplified Methodology
Slat-Type Sunshades
Drapery
Roller Shades and Insect Screens
6. Visual and Thermal Controls
Operational Effectiveness of Shading Devices
Indoor Shading Devices
Double Drapery
7. Air Leakage
Infiltration Through Fenestration
Indoor Air Movement
8. Daylighting
8.1 Daylight Prediction
8.2 Light Transmittance and Daylight Use
9. Selecting Fenestration
9.1 Annual Energy Performance
Simplified Techniques for Rough Estimates of Fenestration Annual Energy Performance
Simplified Residential Annual Energy Performance Ratings
9.2 Condensation Resistance
9.3 Occupant Comfort and Acceptance
Sound Reduction
Strength and Safety
Life-Cycle Costs
9.4 Durability
9.5 Supply and Exhaust Airflow Windows
9.6 Codes and Standards
National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC)
United States Energy Policy Act (EPAct)
ICC’s 2015 International Energy Conservation Code
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2016
ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1-2014
ICC’s 2015 International Green Construction Code™
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
Building Code of Australia/National Construction Code
Complex Glazings and Window Coverings
9.7 Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Representative Fenestration Frame U-Factors in Btu/h· ft2· °F, Vertical Orientation
Table 2 Indoor Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient hi in Btu/h· ft2· °F, Vertical Orientation (Still Air Conditions)
Table 3 Air Space Coefficients for Horizontal Heat Flow
Table 4 U-Factors for Various Fenestration Products in Btu/h· ft2· °F
Table 5 Glazing U-Factors for Various Wind Speeds in Btu/h·ft2·°F
Table 6 Design U-Factors of Swinging Doors in Btu/h·ft2·°F
Table 7 Design U-Factors for Revolving Doors in Btu/h·ft2·°F
Table 8 Design U-Factors for Double-Skin Steel Emergency Exit Doors in Btu/h· ft2· °F
Table 9 Design U-Factors for Double-Skin Steel Sectional, Tilt-Up, and Aircraft Hangar Doors in Btu/h· ft2· °F
Table 10 Visible Transmittance Tv, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC), Solar Transmittance T , Front Reflectance Rf , Back Reflectance Rb, and Layer Absorptance A for Glazing and Window Systems
Table 11 Solar Heat Gain Coefficients for Domed Horizontal Skylights
Table 12 Performance Characteristics of Typical TDDs
Table 13 Solar Heat Gain Coefficients for Standard Hollow Glass Block Wall Panels
Table 14A IAC Values for Louvered Shades: Uncoated Single Glazings
Table 14B IAC Values for Louvered Shades: Uncoated Double Glazings
Table 14C IAC Values for Louvered Shades: Coated Double Glazings with 0.2 Low-e
Table 14D IAC Values for Louvered Shades: Coated Double Glazings with 0.1 Low-e
Table 14E IAC Values for Louvered Shades: Double Glazings with 0.05 Low-e
Table 14F IAC Values for Louvered Shades: Triple Glazing
Table 14G IAC Values for Draperies, Roller Shades, and Insect Screens
Table 15 Summary of Environmental Control Capabilities of Draperies
Table 16 Spectral Selectivity of Several Glazings
Table 17 Sound Transmittance Loss for Various Types of Glass
Figures
Fig. 1 Construction Details of Typical Double-Glazing Unit
Fig. 2 Various Framing Configurations for Residential Fenestration
Fig. 3 Center-of-Glass U-Factor for Vertical Double- and Triple-Pane Glazing Units
Fig. 4 Frame Widths for Standard Fenestration Units
Fig. 5 Details of Stile-and-Rail Door
Fig. 6 Optical Properties of a Single Glazing Layer
Fig. 7 Transmittance and Reflectance of Glass Plate
Fig. 8 Variations with Incident Angle of Solar-Optical Properties for (A) Clear 0.125 in. Glass, (B) Clear 0.25 in. Glass, and (C) 0.25 in. Typical Heat-Absorbing (Tinted) Glass
Fig. 9 Normalized Solar Transmittance for Five Common Glass Substrates as Function of Incidence Angle in Degrees
Fig. 10 Normalized Solar Transmittance, as Function of Incidence Angle in Degrees, for 10 Glazing Systems (Single-, Double-. and Triple-Pane) as Developed forSimple Window Model
Fig. 11 Spectral Transmittances of Commercially Available Glazings
Fig. 12 Spectral Transmittances and Reflectances of Strongly Spectrally Selective Commercially Available Glazings
Fig. 13 Solar Spectrum, Human Eye Response Spectrum, Scaled Blackbody Radiation Spectrum, and Idealized Glazing Reflectance Spectrum
Fig. 14 Demonstration of Two Spectrally Selective Glazing Concepts, Showing Ideal Spectral Transmittances for Glazings Intended for Hot and Cold Climates
Fig. 15 Components of Solar Radiant Heat Gain with Double-Pane Fenestration, Including Both Frame and Glazing Contributions
Fig. 16 Generalized Tubular Daylighting Device
Fig. 17 Transmittance of Straight Tube (Light Pipe) as Function of Reflectivity and Aspect Ratio (Length/Diameter)
Fig. 18 Instantaneous Heat Balance for Sunlit Glazing Material
Fig. 19 Profile Angle for South-Facing Horizontal Projections
Fig. 20 Vertical and Horizontal Projections and Related Profile Angles for Vertical Surface Containing Fenestration
Fig. 21 Comparison of IAC and Solar Transmission Values from ASHWAT Model Versus Measurements
Fig. 22 Geometry of Slat-Type Sunshades
Fig. 23 Designation of Drapery Fabrics
Fig. 24 Drapery Fabric Properties
Fig. 25 Geometry of Drapery Fabrics
Fig. 26 Noise Reduction Coefficient Versus Openness Factor for Draperies
Fig. 27 Window-to-Wall Ratio Versus Annual Electricity Use in kWh/ft2·floor·year
Fig. 28 Visible Transmittance Versus SHGC for Several Glazings with Different Spectral Selectivities
Fig. 29 Visible Transmittance Versus SHGC at Various Spectral Selectivities
Fig. 30 Temperature Distribution on Indoor Surfaces of Glazing Unit
Fig. 31 Minimum Indoor Surface Temperatures Before Condensation Occurs
Fig. 32 Minimum Condensation Resistance Requirements (th = 68°F)
Fig. 33 Location of Fenestration Product Reveals and Blinds/Drapes and Their Effect on Condensation Resistance
Fig. 34 Fenestration Effects on Thermal Comfort: Long-Wave Radiation, Solar Radiation, Convective Draft
--- CHAPTER 16: VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION ---
Sustainable Building Standards and Rating Systems
1. Basic Concepts and Terminology
Ventilation and Infiltration
Ventilation Air
Forced-Air Distribution Systems
Outdoor Air Fraction
Room Air Movement
Air Change Rate
Time Constants
Averaging Time-Varying Ventilation Rates
Age of Air
Air Change Effectiveness
2. Tracer Gas Measurements
Decay or Growth
Constant Concentration
Constant Injection
Multizone Air Change Measurement
3. Driving Mechanisms for Ventilation and Infiltration
Stack Pressure
Wind Pressure
Mechanical Systems
Combining Driving Forces
Neutral Pressure Level
Thermal Draft Coefficient
4. Indoor Air Quality
Protection from Extraordinary Events
5. Thermal Loads
Effect on Envelope Insulation
Infiltration Degree-Days
6. Natural Ventilation
Natural Ventilation Openings
Ceiling Heights
Required Flow for Indoor Temperature Control
Airflow Through Large Intentional Openings
Flow Caused by Wind Only
Flow Caused by Thermal Forces Only
Natural Ventilation Guidelines
Hybrid Ventilation
7. Residential Air Leakage
Envelope Leakage Measurement
Airtightness Ratings
Conversion Between Ratings
Building Air Leakage Data
Air Leakage of Building Components
Leakage Distribution
Multifamily Building Leakage
Controlling Air Leakage
8. Residential Ventilation
Shelter in Place
Safe Havens
9. Residential IAQ Control
Source Control
Local Exhaust
Whole-House Ventilation
Air Distribution
Selection Principles for Residential Ventilation Systems
10. Simplified Models of Residential Ventilation and Infiltration
Empirical Models
Multizone Models
Single-Zone Models
Superposition of Wind and Stack Effects
Residential Calculation Examples
Combining Residential Infiltration and Mechanical Ventilation
Typical Practice
11. Commercial and Institutional Air Leakage
Envelope Leakage
Air Leakage Through Internal Partitions
Air Leakage Through Exterior Doors
Air Leakage Through Automatic Doors
Air Exchange Through Air Curtains
12. Commercial and Institutional Ventilation
Ventilation Rate Procedure
Multiple Spaces
Survey of Ventilation Rates in Office Buildings
13. Office Building Example
Location
Building
Occupancy
Infiltration
Local Exhausts
Ventilation
14. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Continuous Exhaust Airflow Rates
Table 2 Intermittent Exhaust Airflow Rates
Table 3 Total Ventilation Air Requirements
Table 4 Basic Model Stack Coefficient Cs
Table 5 Local Shelter Classes
Table 6 Basic Model Wind Coefficient Cw
Table 7 Enhanced Model Wind Speed Multiplier G
Table 8 Enhanced Model Stack and Wind Coefficients
Table 9 Enhanced Model Shelter Factor s
Table 10 Summary of Building Airtightness Data
Table 11 Air Leakage Areas for Internal Partitions in Commercial Buildings (at 0.30 in. of water and CD = 0.65)
Figures
Fig. 1 Two-Space Building with Mechanical Ventilation,Infiltration, and Exfiltration
Fig. 2 Simple All-Air Air-Handling Unit with Associated Airflows
Fig. 3 Displacement Flow Within a Space
Fig. 4 Entrainment Flow Within a Space
Fig. 5 Underfloor Air Distribution to Occupied Space Above
Fig. 6 Distribution of Indoor and Outdoor Pressures over Height of Building
Fig. 7 Compartmentation Effect in Buildings
Fig. 8 Increase in Airflow by Increasing Area of One Opening
Fig. 9 Airflow Rate Versus Pressure Difference Data from Whole-House Pressurization Test
Fig. 10 Envelope Leakage Measurements
Fig. 11 Histogram of Infiltration Values forThen-New Construction
Fig. 12 Histogram of Infiltration Values for Low-Income Housing
Fig. 13 Air Leakage Rates of Elevator Shaft Walls
Fig. 14 Air Leakage Rate of Door Versus Average Crack Width
Fig. 15 Airflow Coefficient for Automatic Doors
Fig. 16 Pressure Factor for Automatic Doors
--- CHAPTER 17: RESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONS ---
1. Residential Features
2. Calculation Approach
3. Other Methods
4. Residential Heat Balance (RHB) Method
5. Residential Load Factor (RLF) Method
6. Common Data and Procedures
General Guidelines
Basic Relationships
Design Conditions
Building Data
Load Components
7. Cooling Load
Peak Load Computation
Opaque Surfaces
Slab Floors
Surfaces Adjacent to Buffer Space
Transparent Fenestration Surfaces
Infiltration and Ventilation
Internal Gain
Air Distribution System: Heat Gain
Total Latent Load
Summary of RLF Cooling Load Equations
8. Heating Load
Exterior Surfaces Above Grade
Below-Grade and On-Grade Surfaces
Surfaces Adjacent to Buffer Space
Ventilation and Infiltration
Humidification
Pickup Load
Summary of Heating Load Procedures
9. Load Calculation Example
Solution
10. Symbols
References
Tables
Table 1 RLF Limitations
Table 2 Typical Fenestration Characteristics
Table 3 Unit Leakage Areas
Table 4 Evaluation of Exposed Surface Area
Table 5 Typical IDF Values, cfm/in2
Table 6 Typical Duct Loss/Gain Factors
Table 7 Opaque Surface Cooling Factor Coefficients
Table 8 Roof Solar Absorptance roof
Table 9 Peak Irradiance Equations
Table 10 Peak Irradiance, Btu/h·ft2
Table 11 Exterior Attachment Transmission
Table 12 Shade Line Factors (SLFs)
Table 13 Fenestration Solar Load Factors FFs
Table 14 Interior Attenuation Coefficients (IACcl)
Table 15 Summary of RLF Cooling Load Equations
Table 16 Summary of Heating Load Calculation Equations
Table 17 Example House Characteristics
Table 18 Example House Design Conditions
Table 19 Example House Component Quantities
Table 20 Example House Opaque Surface Factors
Table 21 Example House Window Factors
Table 22 Example House Envelope Loads
Table 23 Example House Total Sensible Loads
Figures
Fig. 1 Example House
--- CHAPTER 18: NONRESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONS ---
1. Cooling Load Calculation Principles
1.1 Terminology
Heat Flow Rates
Time Delay Effect
1.2 Cooling Load Calculation Methods
Cooling Load Calculations in Practice
1.3 Data Assembly
2. Internal Heat Gains
2.1 People
2.2 Lighting
Instantaneous Heat Gain from Lighting
2.3 Electric Motors
Overloading or Underloading
Radiation and Convection
2.4 Appliances
Cooking Appliances
Hospital and Laboratory Equipment
Office Equipment
3. Infiltration and Moisture Migration Heat Gains
3.1 Infiltration
Standard Air Volumes
Heat Gain Calculations Using Standard Air Values
Elevation Correction Examples
3.2 Latent Heat Gain from Moisture Diffusion
3.3 Other Latent Loads
4. Fenestration Heat Gain
4.1 Fenestration Direct Solar , Diffuse Solar , and Conductive Heat Gains
4.2 Exterior Shading
5. Heat Balance Method
5.1 Assumptions
5.2 Elements
Outdoor-Face Heat Balance
Wall Conduction Process
Indoor-Face Heat Balance
Using SHGC to Calculate Solar Heat Gain
Air Heat Balance
5.3 General Zone for Load Calculation
5.4 Mathematical Description
Conduction Process
Heat Balance Equations
Overall HB Iterative Solution
5.5 Input Required
6. Radiant Time Series (RTS) Method
6.1 Assumptions and Principles
6.2 Overview
6.3 RTS Procedure
6.4 Heat Gain Through Exterior Surfaces
Sol-Air Temperature
Calculating Conductive Heat Gain Using Conduction Time Series
6.5 Heat Gain Through Interior Surfaces
Floors
6.6 Calculating Cooling Load
7. Heating Load Calculations
7.1 Heat Loss Calculations
Outdoor Design Conditions
Indoor Design Conditions
Calculation of Transmission Heat Losses
Infiltration
7.2 Heating Safety Factors and Load Allowances
7.3 Other Heating Considerations
8. System Heating and Cooling Load Effects
8.1 Zoning
8.2 Ventilation
8.3 Air Heat Transport Systems
On/Off Control Systems
Variable-Air-Volume Systems
Constant-Air-Volume Reheat Systems
Mixed Air Systems
Heat Gain from Fans
Duct Surface Heat Transfer
Duct Leakage
Ceiling Return Air Plenum Temperatures
Ceiling Plenums with Ducted Returns
Underfloor Air Distribution Systems
Plenums in Load Calculations
8.4 Central Plant
Piping
Pumps
9. Example Cooling and Heating Load Calculations
9.1 Single-Room Example
Room Characteristics
Cooling Loads Using RTS Method
9.2 Single-Room Example Peak Heating Load
9.3 Whole-Building Example
Design Process and Shell Building Definition
Tenant Fit Design Process and Definition
Room-by-Room Cooling and Heating Loads
Conclusions
10. Previous Cooling Load Calculation Methods
11. Building Example Drawings
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Representative Rates at Which Heat and Moisture Are Given Off by Human Beings in Different States of Activity
Table 2 Lighting Power Densities Using Space-by-Space Method
Table 3 Lighting Heat Gain Parameters for Typical Operating Conditions
Table 4A Minimum Nominal Full-Load Efficiency for 60 Hz NEMA General-Purpose Electric Motors (Subtype I) Rated 600 V or Less (Random Wound)
Table 4B Minimum Average Full-Load Efficiency for Polyphase Small Electric Motors
Table 5A Recommended Rates of Radiant and Convective Heat Gain from Unhooded Electric Appliances During Idle (Ready-to-Cook) Conditions
Table 5B Recommended Rates of Radiant and Convective Heat Gain from Unhooded Electric Appliances during Cooking Conditions
Table 5C Recommended Rates of Radiant Heat Gain from Hooded Electric Appliances During Idle (Ready-to-Cook) Conditions
Table 5D Recommended Rates of Radiant Heat Gain from Hooded Gas Appliances during Idle (Ready-to-Cook) Conditions
Table 5E Recommended Rates of Radiant Heat Gain from Hooded Solid-Fuel Appliances during Idle (Ready-to-Cook) Conditions
Table 5F Recommended Rates of Radiant and Convective Heat Gain from Warewashing Equipment during Idle (Standby) or Washing Conditions
Table 6 Recommended Heat Gain from Typical Medical Equipment
Table 7 Recommended Heat Gain from Typical Laboratory Equipment
Table 8A Recommended Heat Gain for Typical Desktop Computers
Table 8B Recommended Heat Gain for Typical Laptops and Laptop Docking Station
Table 8C Recommended Heat Gain for Typical Tablet PC
Table 8D Recommended Heat Gain for Typical Monitors
Table 9 Recommended Heat Gain for Typical Printers
Table 10 Recommended Heat Gain for Miscellaneous Equipment
Table 11 Recommended Load Factors for Various Types of Offices
Table 12 Diversity Factor for Different Equipment
Table 13 Single-Layer Glazing Data Produced by WINDOW 7.4.6
Table 14 Recommended Radiative/Convective Splits for Internal Heat Gains
Table 15 Solar Absorptance Values of Various Surfaces
Table 16 Wall Conduction Time Series (CTS)
Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (CTS)
Table 18 Thermal Properties and Code Numbers of Layers Used in Wall and Roof Descriptions for Tables 16 and 17
Table 19 Representative Nonsolar RTS Values for Light to Heavy Construction
Table 20 Representative Solar RTS Values for Light to Heavy Construction
Table 21 RTS Representative Zone Construction for Tables 19 and 20
Table 22 Average U-Factor for Basement Walls with Uniform Insulation
Table 23 Average U-Factor for Basement Floors
Table 24 Heat Loss Coefficient Fp of Slab Floor Construction
Table 25 Common Sizing Calculations in Other Chapters
Table 26 Summary of RTS Load Calculation Procedures
Table 27 Monthly/Hourly 5% Design Temperatures for Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, °F
Table 28 Cooling Load Component: Lighting, Btu/h
Table 29A Conduction: Wall Component of Solar Irradiance (Month 7)
Table 29B Conduction: Wall Component of Sol-Air Temperatures, Heat Input, Heat Gain, Cooling Load (Month 7)
Table 30 Window Component of Heat Gain (No Blinds or Overhang) (Month7)
Table 31 Window Component of Cooling Load (No Blinds or Overhang) (Month 7)
Table 32 Window Component of Cooling Load (with Blinds, No Overhang) (Month 7)
Table 33 Window Component of Cooling Load (with Blinds and Overhang) (Month 7)
Table 34 Single-Room Example Cooling Load (July 3:00 PM) for ASHRAE Example Office Building, Atlanta, GA
Table 35 Single-Room Example Peak Cooling Load (Sept. 5:00 PM) for ASHRAE Example Office Building, Atlanta, GA
Table 36 Block Load Example: Envelope Area Summary, ft2
Table 37 Block Load Example—First Floor Loads for ASHRAE Example Office Building, Atlanta, GA
Table 38 Block Load Example—Second Floor Loads for ASHRAE Example Office Building, Atlanta, GA
Table 39 Block Load Example—Overall Building Loads for ASHRAE Example Office Building, Atlanta, GA
Figures
Fig. 1 Origin of Difference Between Magnitude of Instantaneous Heat Gain and Instantaneous Cooling Load
Fig. 2 Thermal Storage Effect in Cooling Load from Lights
Fig. 3 Lighting Heat Gain Parameters for Recessed Fluorescent Luminaire Without Lens
Fig. 4 Office Equipment Load Factor Comparison
Fig. 5 Schematic of Heat Balance Processes in Zone
Fig. 6 Schematic of Wall Conduction Process
Fig. 7 Schematic View of General Heat Balance Zone
Fig. 8 Overview of Radiant Time Series Method
Fig. 9 CTS for Light to Heavy Walls
Fig. 10 CTS for Walls with Similar Mass and Increasing Insulation
Fig. 11 RTS for Light to Heavy Construction
Fig. 12 Heat Flow from Below-Grade Surface
Fig. 13 Ground Temperature Amplitude
Fig. 14 Below-Grade Parameters
Fig. 15 Schematic Diagram of Typical Return Air Plenum
Fig. 16 Single-Room Example Office
Fig. 17 First Floor Shell and Core Plan
Fig. 18 Second Floor Shell and Core Plan
Fig. 19 East/West Elevations, Elevation Details, and Perimeter Section
Fig. 20 First Floor Tenant Plan
Fig. 21 Second Floor Tenant Plan
Fig. 22 3D View
--- CHAPTER 19: ENERGY ESTIMATING AND MODELING METHODS ---
1. General Considerations
1.1 Models and Approaches
Forward (Classical) Approach
Data-Driven (Inverse) Approach
1.2 Overall Modeling Strategies
1.3 Simulating Secondary and Primary Systems
1.4 History of Simulation Method Development
1.5 Using Energy Models
Typical Applications
Choosing Measures for Evaluation
When to Use Energy Models
Energy Modelers
1.6 Uncertainty in Modeling
1.7 Choosing an Analysis Method
Selecting Energy Analysis Computer Programs
2. Degree-Day and Bin Methods
2.1 Degree-Day Method
Variable-Base Degree-Day Method
Sources of Degree-Day Data
2.2 Bin and Modified Bin Methods
3. Thermal Loads Modeling
3.1 Space Sensible Load Calculation Methods
Heat Balance Method
Weighting-Factor Method
Comprehensive Room Transfer Function
Thermal-Network Methods
3.2 Envelope Component Modeling
Above-Grade Opaque Surfaces
Below-Grade Opaque Surfaces
Fenestration
Infiltration
3.3 Inputs to Thermal Loads Models
Choosing Climate Data
Internal Heat Gains
Occupant Behavior
Thermal Zoning Strategies
4. HVAC Component Modeling
4.1 Modeling Strategies
Empirical (Regression-Based) Models
First-Principles Models
4.2 Terminal Components
Terminal Units and Controls
Underfloor Air Distribution
Thermal Displacement Ventilation
Radiant Heating and Cooling Systems
4.3 Secondary System Components
Fans, Pumps, and Distribution Systems
Heat and Mass Transfer Components
Application to Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils
4.4 Primary System Components
Boilers
Chillers
Cooling Tower Model
Variable-Speed Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Model
Ground-Coupled Systems
4.5 Modeling of System Controls
4.6 Integration of System Models
5. Low-Energy System Modeling
5.1 Natural and Hybrid Ventilation
Natural Ventilation
Hybrid Ventilation
5.2 Daylighting
5.3 Passive Heating
6. Data-Driven Modeling
6.1 Categories of Data-Driven Methods
Empirical or “Black-Box” Approach
Gray-Box Approach
6.2 Types of Data-Driven Models
Steady-State Models
Dynamic Models
6.3 Model Accuracy and Goodness of Fit
6.4 Examples Using Data-Driven Methods
Modeling Utility Bill Data
Neural Network Models
6.5 Model Selection
7. Model Calibration
7.1 Bayesian Analysis
7.2 Pattern-based Approach
7.3 Multiobjective Optimization
8. Validation and Testing
8.1 Methodological Basis
Empirical Validation
External Error Types
Analytical Verification
Combining Empirical, Analytical, and Comparative Techniques
Testing Model Calibration Techniques Using Synthetic Data
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Sample Annual Bin Data
Table 2 Calculation of Annual Heating Energy Consumption for Example 2
Table 3 Correlation Coefficients for Off-Design Relationships
Table 4 Single-Variate Models Applied to Utility Billing Data
Table 5 Capabilities of Different Forward and Data-Driven Modeling Methods
Table 6 Calibration Methods and Techniques
Table 7 ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 140 Validation Test Matrix
Table 8 Validation Techniques
Table 9 Types of Extrapolation
Figures
Fig. 1 Overall Modeling Strategy
Fig. 2 Variation of Balance Point Temperature and Internal Gains for Typical House
Fig. 3 Uncounted Ventilation Degree-Hours versus Counted Cooling Degree-Hours
Fig. 4 Heat Pump Capacity and Building Load
Fig. 5 Possible Part-Load Power Curves
Fig. 6 Part-Load Curves for Typical Fan Operating Strategies
Fig. 7 Fan Part-Load Curve Obtained from Measured Field Data under ASHRAE RP-823
Fig. 8 Psychrometric Schematic of Cooling Coil Processes
Fig. 9 Example Boiler Model: Efficiency as Function of Part-Load Ratio
Fig. 10 Example Boiler Model: Efficiency as Function of Part-Load Ratio and Entering Water Temperature
Fig. 11 Schematic of Variable-Air-Volume System with Reheat
Fig. 12 Algorithm for Calculating Performance of VAV with System Reheat
Fig. 13 Split-Flux Method
Fig. 14 Forward Ray-Tracing Method
Fig. 15 Backward Ray-Tracing Method
Fig. 16 Steady-State, Single-Variate Models for Modeling Energy Use in Residential and Commercial Buildings
Fig. 17 Variable-Base Degree-Day Model Identification Using Electricity Utility Bills at Hospital
Fig. 18 Neural Network Prediction of Whole-Building, Hourly Chilled-Water Consumption for Commercial Building
Fig. 19 Validation Method
Fig. 20 Calibration Cases Conceptual Flow
--- CHAPTER 20: SPACE AIR DIFFUSION ---
1. Indoor Air Quality and Sustainability
2. Terminology
Outlet Types and Characteristics
3. Principles of Jet Behavior
Air Jet Fundamentals
Isothermal Radial Flow Jets
Nonisothermal Jets
Nonisothermal Horizontal Free Jet
Comparison of Free Jet to Attached Jet
Air Curtain Units
Multiple Jets
Air Movement in Occupied Zone
4. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Generic Values for Centerline Velocity Constant Kc3 a for Commercial Supply Outlets for Fully and Partially Mixed Systems, Except UFAD
Figures
Fig. 1 Classification of Air Diffusion Methods
Fig. 2 Example Airflow Patterns of Outlet Group A1
Fig. 3 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group A1
Fig. 4 Example Airflow Patterns (Isothermal) of Outlet Group A2
Fig. 5 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group B AR
Fig. 6 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group C
Fig. 7 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group D (High Velocity)
Fig. 8 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group D (Low Velocity)
Fig. 9 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group E (High Velocity)
Fig. 10 Example Airflow Patterns (Nonisothermal) of Outlet Group E (Low Velocity)
Fig. 11 Zones of Expansion for Axial or Radial Air Jets
Fig. 12 Zones of Expansion for Linear Air Jets
Fig. 13 Cross-Sectional Velocity Profiles for Straight-Flow Turbulent Jets
Fig. 14 Thermal Plume from Point Source
Fig. 15 Schematic Diagram of Major Flow Elements in Room with Displacement Ventilation
--- CHAPTER 21: DUCT DESIGN ---
1. Bernoulli Equation
1.1 Head and Pressure
Static Pressure
Velocity Pressure
Total Pressure
Pressure and Velocity Measurements
2. System Analysis
2.1 Pressure Changes in System
3. Fluid Resistance
3.1 Friction Losses
Darcy and Colebrook Equations
Roughness Factors
Friction Chart
Noncircular Ducts
3.2 Dynamic Losses
Local Loss Coefficients
Duct Fitting Database
3.3 Ductwork Sectional Losses
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
4. Fan/System Interface
Fan Inlet and Outlet Conditions
Fan System Effect Coefficients
5. Mechanical Equipment Rooms
Outdoor Air Intake and Exhaust Air Discharge Locations
Equipment Room Locations
6. Duct Design
6.1 Design Considerations
HVAC System Air Leakage
Fire and Smoke Control
Duct Insulation
Physical Security
Louvers
Duct Shape Selection
Testing and Balancing
6.2 Design Recommendations
6.3 Design Methods
Noise Control
Goals
Design Method to Use
6.4 Industrial Exhaust Systems
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Duct Roughness Factors
Table 2 Solution for Example 6
Table 3 Equivalent Rectangular Duct Dimensions for Equal Friction and Airflow
Table 4 Equivalent Flat Oval Dimensions
Table 5 Duct Fitting Codes
Table 6 8 in. VAV Box Data
Table 7 ED7-2 Loss Coefficients (see Figure 15)
Table 8 Solution for Example 7
Table 9 Maximum Airflow of Round, Flat Oval and Rectangular Ducts as Function of Available Ceiling Space
Table 10 Options for Selecting 90° Takeoff
Table 11 Options for Selecting 45° Takeoff (Wye)
Table 12 Recommended Maximum Airflow Velocities to Achieve
Specified Acoustic Design Criteria
Table 13 Guide for Selecting Low-Pressure System
Friction Rate
Table 14 Example 8, Equal Friction Design
Table 15 Example 8, Static Regain Design
Table 16 Static Regain Iteration Process for Section 4
Table 17 Summary of System Duct Sizes
Table 18 System Unbalance
Table 19 Total Pressure Loss Calculations by Sections for Example 9
Table 20 Loss Coefficient Summary by Sections for Example 9
Figures
Fig. 1 Thermal Gravity Effect for Example 1
Fig. 2 Multiple Stacks for Example 2
Fig. 3 Illustrative 6-Path, 9-Section System
Fig. 4 Single Stack with Fan for Examples 3 and 4
Fig. 5 Triple Stack System for Example 5
Fig. 6 Pressure Changes During Flow in Ducts
Fig. 7 Pressure Loss Correction Factor for Flexible Duct Not Fully Extended
Fig. 8 Diffuser Installation Suggestions
Fig. 9 Friction Chart for Round Duct
Fig. 10 Plot Illustrating Relative Resistance of
Roughness Categories
Fig. 11 VAV Box Loss Coefficient Plot
Fig. 12 Deficient System Performance with
System Effect Ignored
Fig. 13 Establishment of Uniform Velocity Profile in Straight Fan Outlet Duct
Fig. 14 Inlet Duct Connections Causing Inlet Spin
Fig. 15 Fitting ED7-2 (Fan Inlet, Centrifugal Fan, SISW, with
4-Gore Elbow)
Fig. 16 Comparison of Various Mechanical Equipment Room Locations
Fig. 17 Duct Layout for Example 7
Fig. 18 Criteria for Louver Sizing
Fig. 19 Relative Weight of Rectangular Duct to Round
Spiral Duct
Fig. 20 Maximum Airflow of Round, Flat Oval, and
Rectangular Ducts as Function of Available Ceiling Space
Fig. 21 Guidelines For Minimizing Regenerated Noise in Takeoff
Fig. 22 Guidelines for Centrifugal Fan Installations
Fig. 23 Guidelines for VAV Terminal Unit Installation
Fig. 24 Economizer Duct System Shown
Fig. 25 System Layout for Example 8
Fig. 26 Air Density for Example 8
Fig. 27 Sizing Section 2 for EF and SR Design Examples
Fig. 28 EF Design: Sizing Sections 4, 6, and 8 Knowing Design Friction Rate (Section 4 Shown)
Fig. 29 Metalworking Exhaust System for Example 9
Fig. 30 System Schematic with Section Numbers for
Example 9
Fig. 31 Total Pressure Grade Line for Example 9
--- CHAPTER 22: PIPE DESIGN ---
1. Fundamentals
1.1 Codes and Standards
1.2 Design Considerations
1.3 General Pipe Systems
Metallic Pipe Systems
Nonmetallic (Plastic) Pipe Systems
Special Systems
1.4 Design Equations
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Hazen-Williams Equation
Valve and Fitting Losses
Losses in Multiple Fittings
Calculating Pressure Losses
Stress Calculations
1.5 Sizing Procedure
1.6 Pipe-Supporting Elements
Hanger Spacing and Pipe Wall Thickness
1.7 Pipe Expansion and Flexibility
1.8 Pipe Bends and Loops
L Bends
Z Bends
U Bends and Pipe Loops
Expansion and Contraction Control of Other Materials
Cold Springing of Pipe
Analyzing Existing Piping Configurations
2. Pipe and Fitting Materials
2.1 Pipe
Steel Pipe
Copper Tube
Ductile Iron and Cast Iron
Nonmetallic (Plastic)
2.2 Fittings
2.3 Joining Methods
Threading
Soldering and Brazing
Flared and Compression Joints
Flanges
Welding
Integrally Reinforced Outlet Fittings
Solvent Cement
Rolled-Groove Joints
Bell-and-Spigot Joints
Press-Connect (Press Fit) Joints
Push-Connect Joints
Unions
2.4 Expansion Joints and Expansion Compensating Devices
Packed Expansion Joints
Packless Expansion Joints
3. Applications
3.1 Water Piping
Flow Rate Limitations
Noise Generation
Erosion
Allowances for Aging
Water Hammer
3.2 Service Water Piping
Plastic Pipe
Procedure for Sizing Cold-Water Systems
Hydronic System Piping
Range of Usage of Pressure Drop Charts
Air Separation
Valve and Fitting Pressure Drop
3.3 Steam Piping
Pipe Sizes
Sizing Charts
3.4 Low-Pressure Steam Piping
High-Pressure Steam Piping
Use of Basic and Velocity Multiplier Charts
3.5 Steam Condensate Systems
Two-Pipe Systems
One-Pipe Systems
3.6 Gas Piping
3.7 Fuel Oil Piping
Pipe Sizes for Heavy Oil
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Common Applications of Pipe, Fittings, and Valves for Heating and Air Conditioning
Table 2 Manufacturers’ Recommendations^a,b for Plastic Materials
Table 3 K Factors: Threaded Steel Pipe Fittings
Table 4 K Factors: Flanged Welded Steel Pipe Fittings
Table 5 Approximate Range of Variation for K Factors of Steel Fittings
Table 6 Summary of K Values for Steel Ells, Reducers, and Expansions
Table 7 Summary of Test Data for Loss Coefficients K for Steel Pipe Tees
Table 8 Test Summary for Loss Coefficients K and Equivalent Loss Lengths
Table 9 Test Summary for Loss Coefficients K of PVC Tees
Table 10 Capacities of ASTM A36 Steel Threaded Rods
Table 11 Suggested Hanger Spacing and Rod Size for Straight Horizontal Runs
Table 12 Suggested Maximum Spacing Between Hangers/Support for PVC and CPVC Pipe
Table 13 Thermal Expansion of Metal Pipe
Table 14 Pipe Loop Design for A53 Grade B Carbon Steel Pipe Through 400°F
Table 15 Allowable Stresses for Pipe and Tube
Table 16 Steel Pipe Data
Table 17 Copper Tube Data
Table 18 Properties of Pipe Materials
Table 19 Applicable Standards for Fittings
Table 20 Internal Working Pressure for Copper Tube Joints
Table 21 Piping System Design Maximum Flow Rate for Energy Conservation
Table 22 Water Velocities Based on Type of Service
Table 23 Maximum Water Velocity to Minimize Erosion
Table 24 Proper Flow and Pressure Required During Flow for Different Fixtures
Table 25 Demand Weights of Fixtures in Fixture Units
Table 26 Allowable Number of 1 in. Flush Valves Served by Various Sizes of Water Pipe
Table 27 Equivalent Length in Feet of Pipe for 90° Elbows
Table 28 Iron and Copper Elbow Equivalents
Table 29 Pressure Drops Used for Sizing Steam Pipe
Table 30 Comparative Capacity of Steam Lines at Various Pitches for Steam and Condensate Flowing in Opposite Directions
Table 31 Equivalent Length of Fittings to Be Addedto Pipe Run
Table 32 Flow Rate of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe
Table 33 Steam Pipe Capacities for Low-Pressure Systems
Table 34 Return Main and Riser Capacities for Low-Pressure Systems, lb/h
Table 35 Vented Dry Condensate Return for Gravity Flow Based on Manning Equation
Table 36 Vented Wet Condensate Return for Gravity Flow Based on Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Table 37 Flow Rate for Dry-Closed Returns
Table 38 Flash Steam from Steam Trap on Pressure Drop
Table 39 Estimated Return Line Pressures
Table 40 Maximum Capacity of Gas Pipe in Cubic Feet per Hour
Table 41 Recommended Nominal Size for Fuel Oil Suction Lines from Tank to Pump (Residual Grades No. 5 and No. 6)
Table 42 Recommended Nominal Size for Fuel Oil Suction Lines from Tank to Pump (Distillate Grades No. 1 and No. 2)
Figures
Fig. 1 Close-Coupled Test Configurations
Fig. 2 Summary Plot of Effect of Close-Coupled Configurations for 2 in. Ells
Fig. 3 Summary Plot of Effect of Close-Coupled Configurations for 4 in. Ells
Fig. 4 Guided Cantilever Beam
Fig. 5 Z Bend in Pipe
Fig. 6 Multiplane Pipe System
Fig. 7 Packed Slip Expansion Joint
Fig. 8 Flexible Ball Joint
Fig. 9 Demand Versus Fixture Units, Mixed System, High Part of Curve
Fig. 10 Estimate Curves for Demand Load
Fig. 11 Section of Figure 10 on Enlarged Scale
Fig. 12 Pressure Losses in Disk-Type Water Meters
Fig. 13 Variation of Pressure Loss with Flow Rate for Various Faucets and Cocks
Fig. 14 Friction Loss for Water in Commercial Steel Pipe (Schedule 40)
Fig. 15 Friction Loss for Water in Copper Tubing (Types K, L, M)
Fig. 16 Friction Loss for Water in Plastic Pipe (Schedule 80)
Fig. 17 Elbow Equivalents of Tees at Various Flow Conditions
Fig. 18 Flow Rate and Velocity of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Saturation Pressure of 0 psig
Fig. 19A Flow Rate and Velocity of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Saturation Pressure of 30 psig
Fig. 19B Flow Rate and Velocity of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Saturation Pressure of 50 psig
Fig. 19C Flow Rate and Velocity of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Saturation Pressure of 100 psig
Fig. 19D Flow Rate and Velocity of Steam in Schedule 40 Pipe at Saturation Pressure of 150 psig
Fig. 20 Velocity Multiplier Chart for Figure 18
Fig. 21 Types of Condensate Return Systems
Fig. 22 Working Chart for Determining Percentageof Flash Steam (Quality)
Fig. 23 Typical Oil Circulating Loop
--- CHAPTER 23: INSULATION FOR MECHANICAL SYSTEMS ---
1. Design Objectives and Considerations
Energy Conservation
Economic Thickness
Personnel Protection
Condensation Control
Freeze Prevention
Noise Control
Fire Safety
Corrosion Under Insulation
2. Materials and Systems
Categories of Insulation Materials
Physical Properties of Insulation Materials
Weather Protection
Vapor Retarders
3. Installation
Pipe Insulation
Tanks, Vessels, and Equipment
Ducts
4. Design Data
Estimating Heat Loss and Gain
Controlling Surface Temperatures
5. Project Specifications
Standards
References
Tables
Table 1 Minimum Duct Insulation R-Value, Cooling- and Heating-Only Supply Ducts and Return Ducts
Table 2 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness, in.
Table 3 Minimum Duct Insulation R-Value, Combined Heating and Cooling Supply Ducts and Return Ducts
Table 4 Insulation Thickness Required to Prevent Surface Condensation
Table 5 Design Weather Data for Condensation Control
Table 6 Time to Cool Water to Freezing, h
Table 7 Insertion Loss for Pipe Insulation Materials, dB
Table 8 Performance Property Guide for Insulation Materials
Table 9 Thermal Conductivities of Cylindrical Pipe Insulation at 55 and 75°F
Table 10 Minimum Saddle Lengths for Use with Fibrous Glass Pipe Insulation
Table 11 Minimum Saddle Lengths for Use with 2 lb/ft3 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation (0.5 to 3 in. thick)
Table 12 Emittance Data of Commonly Used Materials
Table 13 Inner and Outer Diameters of Standard Pipe Insulation
Table 14 Inner and Outer Diameters of Standard Tubing Insulation
Table 15 Inner and Outer Diameters of Standard Flexible Closed-Cell Pipe Insulation
Table 16 Inner and Outer Diameters of Standard Flexible Closed-Cell Tubing Insulation
Table 17 Heat Loss from Bare Steel Pipe to Still Air at 80°F, Btu/h· ft
Table 18 Heat Loss from Bare Copper Tube to Still Air at 80°F, Btu/h·ft
Figures
Fig. 1 Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation
Fig. 2 Relative Humidity Histogram for Charlotte, NC
Fig. 3 ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1
Fig. 4 Time to Freeze Nomenclature
Fig. 5 Insertion Loss Versus Weight of Jacket
Fig. 6 Insulating Pipe Hangers
Fig. 7 R-Value Required to Prevent Condensation on Surface with Emittance ɛ = 0.1
Fig. 8 R-Value Required to Prevent Condensation on Surface with Emittance ɛ = 0.9
--- CHAPTER 24: AIRFLOW AROUND BUILDINGS ---
1. Flow Patterns
Flow Patterns Around Isolated, Rectangular Block- Type Buildings
Flow Patterns Around Building Groups
2. Wind Pressure on Buildings
Approach Wind Speed
Local Wind Pressure Coefficients
Surface-Averaged Wall Pressures
Roof Pressures
Interference and Shielding Effects on Pressures
3. Sources of Wind Data
Wind at Recording Stations
Estimating Wind at Sites Remote from Recording Stations
4. Wind Effects on System Operation
Natural and Mechanical Ventilation
Minimizing Wind Effect on System Volume Flow Rate
Chemical Hood Operation
5. Building Pressure Balance and Internal Flow Control
Pressure Balance
Internal Flow Control
6. Environmental Impacts of Building External Flow
Pollutant Dispersion and Exhaust Reentrainment
Pedestrian Wind Comfort and Safety
Wind-Driven Rain on Buildings
7. Physical and Computational Modeling
Physical Modeling
Similarity Requirements
Wind Simulation Facilities
Designing Model Test Programs
Computational Modeling
8. Symbols
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Atmospheric Boundary Layer Parameters
Table 2 Typical Relationship of Hourly Wind Speed Umet to Annual Average Wind Speed Uannual
Figures
Fig. 1 Wind Flow Pattern Around High-Rise Building Slab
Fig. 2 Wind Flow Pattern Around Isolated Building
Fig. 3 Surface Flow Patterns for Normal and Oblique Winds
Fig. 4 Flow Recirculation Regions
Fig. 5 Buildings in (A) Converging and (B) Diverging Configuration
Fig. 6 Amplification Factor K in Horizontal Plane at y = 2 m above Ground for Converging and Diverging Arrangement with H = 30 m and w = 75 m and 20 m
Fig. 7 Flow Regimes Associated with Airflow over Building Arrays of Increasing H/W
Fig. 8 Local Pressure Coefficients (Cp x 100) for High-Rise Building with Varying Wind Direction
Fig. 9 Local Pressure Coefficients for Low-Rise Building with Varying Wind Direction
Fig. 10 Surface-Averaged Wall Pressure Coefficients for High-Rise Buildings
Fig. 11 Surface-Averaged Wall Pressure Coefficients for Low-Rise Buildings
Fig. 12 Surface-Averaged Roof Pressure Coefficients for Tall Buildings
Fig. 13 Local Roof Pressure Coefficients for Roof of Low-Rise Buildings
Fig. 14 Frequency Distribution of Wind Speed and Direction
Fig. 15 Sensitivity of System Volume to Locations of Building Openings, Intakes, and Exhausts
Fig. 16 Intake and Exhaust Pressures on Exhaust Fan in Single-Zone Building
Fig. 17 Effect of Wind-Assisted and Wind-Opposed Flow
Fig. 18 Flow Patterns Around Rectangular Block Building
---CHAPTER 25: HEAT, AIR, AND MOISTURE CONTROL IN BUILDING
ASSEMBLIES—FUNDAMENTALS ---
1. Fundamentals
1.1 Terminology and Symbols
Heat
Air
Moisture
1.2 Hygrothermal Loads and Driving Forces
Ambient Temperature and Humidity
Indoor Temperature and Humidity
Solar Radiation
Exterior Condensation
Wind-Driven Rain
Construction Moisture
Ground- and Surface Water
Air Pressure Differentials
2. Heat Transfer
2.1 Steady-State Thermal Response
Surface-to-Surface Thermal Resistance of a Flat Assembly
Combined Convective and Radiative Surface Heat Transfer
Heat Flow Across an Air Space
Total Thermal Resistance of a Flat Building Assembly
Thermal Transmittance of a Flat Building Assembly
Interface Temperatures in a Flat Building Component
Series and Parallel Heat Flow Paths
Thermal Bridging and Thermal Performance of Multidimensional Construction
Linear and Point Thermal Transmittances
2.2 Transient Thermal Response
3. Airflow
Heat Flux with Airflow
4. Moisture Transfer
4.1 Moisture Storage in Building Materials
4.2 Moisture Flow Mechanisms
Water Vapor Flow by Diffusion
Water Vapor Flow by Air Movement
Water Flow by Capillary Suction
Liquid Flow at Low Moisture Content
Transient Moisture Flow
5. Combined Heat, Air , and Moisture Transfer
6. Simplified Hygrothermal Design Calculations and Analyses
6.1 Surface Humidity and Condensation
6.2 Interstitial Condensation and Drying
Dew-Point Method
7. Transient Computational Analysis
7.1 Criteria to Evaluate Hygrothermal Simulation Results
Thermal Comfort
Perceived Air Quality
Human Health
Durability of Finishes and Structure
Energy Efficiency
References
Bibliography
Figures
Fig. 1 Hygrothermal Loads and Alternating Diurnal or Seasonal Directions Acting on Building Envelope
Fig. 2 Solar Vapor Drive and Interstitial Condensation
Fig. 3 Typical Wind-Driven Rain Rose for Open Ground
Fig. 4 Measured Reduction in Catch Ratio Close to Façade of One-Story Building at Height of 6 ft
Fig. 5 Heat Flux by Thermal Radiation and Combined Convection and Conduction Across Vertical or Horizontal Air Layer
Fig. 6 Examples of Airflow Patterns
Fig. 7 Sorption Isotherms for Porous Building Materials
Fig. 8 Sorption Isotherm and Suction Curve for Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
Fig. 9 Capillary Rise in Hydrophilic Materials
Fig. 10 Moisture Fluxes by Vapor Diffusion and Liquid Flow in Single Capillary of Exterior Wall under Winter Conditions
--- CHAPTER 26: HEAT, AIR, AND MOISTURE CONTROL IN BUILDING ASSEMBLIES—MATERIAL PROPERTIES ---
1. Insulation Materials and Insulating Systems
1.1 Apparent Thermal Conductivity
Influencing Conditions
1.2 Materials and Systems
Glass Fiber and Mineral Wool
Cellulose Fiber
Plastic Foams
Cellular Glass
Capillary-Active Insulation Materials (CAIMs)
Transparent Insulation
Vacuum Insulation Panels
Reflective Insulation Systems
2. Air Barriers
3. Water Vapor Retarders
4. Data Tables
4.1 Thermal Property Data
4.2 Surface Emissivity and Emittance Data
4.3 Thermal Resistance of Plane Air Spaces
4.4 Air Permeance Data
4.5 Water Vapor Permeance Data
4.6 Moisture Storage Data
4.7 Soils Data
4.8 Surface Film Coefficients/ Resistances
4.9 Codes and Standards
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Building and Insulating Materials: Design Values
Table 2 Emissivity of Various Surfaces and Effective Emittances of Facing Air Spaces
Table 3 Effective Thermal Resistance of Plane Air Spaces h·ft2·°F/Btu
Table 4 Air Permeability of Different Materials
Table 5 Typical Water Vapor Permeance and Permeability for Common Building Materials
Table 6 Water Vapor Permeance at Various Relative Humidities and Capillary Water Absorption Coefficient
Table 7 Sorption/Desorption Isotherms of Building Materials at Various Relative Humidities
Table 8 Typical Apparent Thermal Conductivity Valuesfor Soils, Btu· in/h·ft2 ·°F
Table 9 Typical Apparent Thermal Conductivity Valuesfor Rocks, Btu· in/h·ft2· °F
Table 10 Surface Film Coefficients/Resistances
Figures
Fig. 1 Apparent Thermal Conductivity Versus Density of Several Thermal Insulations Used as Building Insulations
Fig. 2 Variation of Apparent Thermal Conductivity with Fiber Diameter and Density
Fig. 3 Working Principle of Capillary-Active Interior Insulation
Fig. 4 Permeability of Wood-Based Sheathing Materials at Various Relative Humidities
Fig. 5 Sorption/Desorption Isotherms, Cement Board
Fig. 6 Trends of Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Moist Soils
--- CHAPTER 27: HEAT, AIR , AND MOISTURE CONTROL IN BUILDING
ASSEMBLIES—EXAMPLES ---
1. Heat Transfer
1.1 One-Dimensional Assembly U-Factor Calculation
Wall Assembly U-Factor
Roof Assembly U-Factor
Attics
Basement Walls and Floors
1.2 Two-Dimensional Assembly U-Factor Calculation
Wood-Frame Walls
Masonry Walls
Constructions Containing Metal
Zone Method of Calculation
Modified Zone Method for Metal Stud Walls with Insulated Cavities
Complex Assemblies
Windows and Doors
2. Moisture Transport
2.1 Wall with Insulated Sheathing
2.2 Vapor Pressure Profile (Glaser or Dew-Point) Analysis
Winter Wall Wetting Examples
3. Transient Hygrothermal Modeling
4. Air Movement
Equivalent Permeance
References
Bibliography
Figures
Fig. 1 Structural Insulated Panel Assembly (Example 1)
Fig. 2 Roof Assembly (Example 2)
Fig. 3 (A) Wall Assembly for Example 3, with Equivalent Electrical Circuits: (B) Parallel Path and (C) Isothermal Planes
Fig. 4 Insulated Concrete Block Wall (Example 4)
Fig. 5 Wall Section and Equivalent Electrical Circuit (Example 5)
Fig. 6 Modified Zone Factor for Calculating R-Value of Metal Stud Walls with Cavity Insulation
Fig. 7 Corner Composed of Homogeneous Material Showing Locations of Isotherms
Fig. 8 Insulating Material Installed on Conductive Material, Showing Temperature Anomaly (Point A) at Insulation Edge
Fig. 9 Brick Veneer Shelf for Example 6
Fig. 10 Dew-Point Calculation in Wood-Framed Wall (Example 8)
Fig. 11 Drying Wet Sheathing, Winter (Example 9)
Fig. 12 Drying Wet Sheathing, Summer (Example 9)
--- CHAPTER 28: COMBUSTION AND FUELS ---
1. Principles of Combustion
Combustion Reactions
Flammability Limits
Ignition Temperature
Combustion Modes
Heating Value
Altitude Compensation
2. Fuel Classification
3. Gaseous Fuels
Types and Properties
4. Liquid Fuels
Types of Fuel Oils
Characteristics of Fuel Oils
Types and Properties of Liquid Fuels for Engines
5. Solid Fuels
Types of Coals
Characteristics of Coal
6. Combustion Calculations
Air Required for Combustion
Theoretical CO2
Quantity of Flue Gas Produced
Water Vapor and Dew Point of Flue Gas
Sample Combustion Calculations
7. Efficiency Calculations
Seasonal Efficiency
8. Combustion Considerations
Air Pollution
Portable Combustion Analyzers (PCAs)
Condensation and Corrosion
Abnormal Combustion Noise in Gas Appliances
Soot
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Combustion Reactions of Common Fuel Constituents
Table 2 Flammability Limits and Ignition Temperatures of Common Fuels in Fuel/Air Mixtures
Table 3 Heating Values of Substances Occurring in Common Fuels
Table 4 Propane/Air and Butane/Air Gas Mixtures
Table 5 Components of Organic Portion of Municipal Solid Waste
Table 6 Landfill Gas Composition
Table 7 Typical Compounds and Concentrations in Biogasfrom Anaerobic Digester
Table 8 Typical Compounds and Concentrations Found in Syngas from Thermal Gasification
Table 9 Sulfur Content of Marketed Fuel Oils
Table 10 Typical API Gravity, Density, and Higher Heating Value of Standard Grades of Fuel Oil
Table 11 Classification of Coals by Ranka
Table 12 Typical Ultimate Analyses for Coals
Table 13 Approximate Air Requirements for Stoichiometric Combustion of Fuels by Category
Table 14 Theoretical Air Requirements for Stoichiometric Combustion of Various Fuels
Table 15 Approximate Maximum Theoretical (Stoichiometric) CO2 Values, and CO2 Values of Various Fuels with Different Percentages of Excess Air
Table 16 NOx Emission Factors for Combustion Sources
Figures
Fig. 1 Altitude Effects on Gas Combustion Appliances
Fig. 2 Approximate Viscosity of Fuel Oils
Fig. 3 Water Vapor and Dew Point of Flue G
Fig. 4 Theoretical Dew Points of Combustion Products of Industrial Fuels
Fig. 5 Influence of Sulfur Oxides on Flue Gas Dew Point
Fig. 6 Flue Gas Losses with Various Fuels
Fig. 7 Feedback Loop Stability Model Defined by Baade (1978, 2004)
--- CHAPTER 29: REFRIGERANTS ---
1. Refrigerant Properties
Global Environmental Properties
Physical Properties
Electrical Properties
Sound Velocity
2. Refrigerant Performance
3. Safety
4. Leak Detection
Electronic Detection
Bubble Method
Pressure Change Methods
UV Dye Method
Ammonia Leaks
5. Compatibility with Construction Materials
Metals
Elastomers
Plastics
Additional Compatibility Reports
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Refrigerant Data and Safety Classifications
Table 2 Data and Safety Classifications for Refrigerant Blends
Table 3A Refrigerant Environmental Properties
Table 3B Refrigerant Environmental Properties
Table 4 Environmental Properties of Refrigerant Blends; based on Montreal Protocol Reporting ODP and IPCC AR4and AR5 GWP100 of Components
Table 5 Physical Properties of Selected Refrigerantsa
Table 6 Electrical Properties of Liquid Refrigerants
Table 7 Electrical Properties of Refrigerant Vapors
Table 8 Comparative Refrigerant Performance per Ton of Refrigeration
Table 9 Swelling of Elastomers in Liquid Refrigerants at Room Temperature, % Linear Swell
--- CHAPTER 30: THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS ---
1. Refrigerant 12 (dichlorodifluoromethane)
Refrigerant 12 (Dichlorodifluoromethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
2. Refrigerant 22 (chlorodifluoromethane)
Refrigerant 22 (Chlorodifluoromethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
3. Refrigerant 23 (trifluoromethane)
Refrigerant 23 (Trifluoromethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
4. Refrigerant 32 (difluoromethane)
Refrigerant 32 (Difluoromethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
5. Refrigerant 123 (2,2-dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane)
Refrigerant 123 (2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-Trifluoroethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
6. Refrigerant 124 (2-chloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane)
Refrigerant 124 (2-Chloro-1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
7. Refrigerant 125 (pentafluoroethane)
Refrigerant 125 (Pentafluoroethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
8. Refrigerant 134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane)
Refrigerant 134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Refrigerant 134a Properties of Superheated Vapor
9. Refrigerant 143a (1,1,1-trifluoroethane)
Refrigerant 143a (1,1,1-Trifluoroethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
10. Refrigerant 152a (1,1-difluoroethane)
Refrigerant 152a (1,1-Difluoroethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
11. Refrigerant 245fa (1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane)
Refrigerant 245fa (1,1,1,3,3-Pentafluoropropane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
12. Refrigerant 1233zd(E) (trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoroprop-1-ene)
Refrigerant 1233zd(E) (trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoroprop-1-ene) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
13. Refrigerant 1234yf (2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene)
Refrigerant 1234yf (2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
14. Refrigerant 1234ze(E) (trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene)
Refrigerant 1234ze(E) (trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
15. Refrigerant 404A [R-125/143a/134a (44/52/4)]
Refrigerant 404A [R-125/143a/134a (44/52/4)] Properties of Liquid on Bubble Line and Vapor on Dew Line
16. Refrigerant 407C [R-32/125/134a (23/25/52)]
Refrigerant 407C [R-32/125/134a (23/25/52)] Properties of Liquid on Bubble Line and Vapor on Dew Line
17. Refrigerant 410A [R-32/125 (50/50)]
Refrigerant 410A [R-32/125 (50/50)] Properties of Liquid on Bubble Line and Vapor on Dew Line
18. Refrigerant 507A [R-125/143a (50/50)]
Refrigerant 507A [R-125/143a (50/50)] Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
19. Refrigerant 717 (ammonia)
Refrigerant 717 (Ammonia) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
20. Refrigerant 718 (water/steam)
Refrigerant 718 (Water/Steam) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
21. Refrigerant 744 (carbon dioxide)
Refrigerant 744 (Carbon Dioxide) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
22. Refrigerant 50 (methane)
Refrigerant 50 (Methane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Refrigerant 50 (Methane) Properties of Gas at 14.696 psia (one standard atmosphere)
23. Refrigerant 170 (ethane)
Refrigerant 170 (Ethane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
24. Refrigerant 290 (propane)
Refrigerant 290 (Propane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
25. Refrigerant 600 (n-butane)
Refrigerant 600 (n-Butane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
26. Refrigerant 600a (isobutane)
Refrigerant 600a (Isobutane) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
27. Refrigerant 1150 (ethylene)
Refrigerant 1150 (Ethylene) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
28. Refrigerant 1270 (propylene)
Refrigerant 1270 (Propylene) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
29. Refrigerant 704 (helium)
Refrigerant 704 (Helium) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Refrigerant 704 (Helium) Properties of Gas at 14.696 psia (one standard atmosphere)
30. Refrigerant 728 (nitrogen)
Refrigerant 728 (Nitrogen) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Refrigerant 728 (Nitrogen) Properties of Gas at 14.696 psia (one standard atmosphere)
31. Refrigerant 729 (air)
Refrigerant 729 (Air) Properties of Liquid on the Bubble Line and Vapor on the Dew Line
Refrigerant 729 (Air) Properties of Gas at 14.696 psia (one standard atmosphere)
32. Refrigerant 732 (oxygen)
Refrigerant 732 (Oxygen) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Refrigerant 732 (Oxygen) Properties of Gas at 14.696 psia (one standard atmosphere)
33. Refrigerant 740 (argon)
Refrigerant 740 (Argon) Properties of Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
Refrigerant 740 (Argon) Properties of Gas at 14.696 psia (one standard atmosphere)
34. Ammonia/Water
Specific Volume of Saturated Ammonia-Water Solutions, ft3/lb
35. Water/Lithium Bromide
Refrigerant Temperature (t = °F) and Enthalpy (h = Btu/lb) of Lithium Bromide Solutions
References
Fig. 38 Specific Heat of Aqueous Lithium Bromide Solutions
Fig. 39 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Lithium Bromide
Figures
Fig. 1 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 12
Fig. 2 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 22
Fig. 3 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 23
Fig. 4 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 32
Fig. 5 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 123
Fig. 6 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 124
Fig. 7 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 125
Fig. 8 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 134a
Fig. 9 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 143a
Fig. 10 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 152a
Fig. 11 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 245fa
Fig. 12 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant R-1233zd(E)
Fig. 13 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 1234yf
Fig. 14 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 1234ze(E)
Fig. 15 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 404A
Fig. 16 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 407C
Fig. 17 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 410A
Fig. 18 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 507A
Fig. 19 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 717 (Ammonia)
Fig. 20 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 718 (Water/Steam)
Fig. 21 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 744 (Carbon Dioxide)
Fig. 22 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 50 (Methane)
Fig. 23 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 170 (Ethane)
Fig. 24 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 290 (Propane)
Fig. 25 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 600 (n-Butane)
Fig. 26 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 600a (Isobutane)
Fig. 27 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 1150 (Ethylene)
Fig. 28 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 1270 (Propylene)
Fig. 29 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 704 (Helium)
Fig. 30 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 728 (Nitrogen)
Fig. 31 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 729 (Air)
Fig. 32 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 732 (Oxygen)
Fig. 33 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 740 (Argon)
Fig. 34 Enthalpy-Concentration Diagram for Ammonia/Water Solutions Prepared by Kwang Kim and Keith Herold, Center for Environmental Energy Engineering, University of Maryland at College Park
Fig. 35 Enthalpy-Concentration Diagram for Water/Lithium Bromide Solutions
Fig. 36 Equilibrium Chart for Aqueous Lithium Bromide Solutions
Fig. 37 Specific Gravity of Aqueous Solutions of Lithium Bromide
Fig. 38 Specific Heat of Aqueous Lithium Bromide Solutions
Fig. 39 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Lithium Bromide
--- CHAPTER 31: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SECONDARY
COOLANTS (BRINES) ---
1. Salt-Based Brines
Physical Properties
Corrosion Inhibition
2. Inhibited Glycols
Physical Properties
Corrosion Inhibition
Service Considerations
3. Halocarbons
4. Nonhalocarbon, Nonaqueous Fluids
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Properties of Pure Calcium Chloridea Brines
Table 2 Properties of Pure Sodium Chloridea Brines
Table 3 Physical Properties of Ethylene Glycol and Propylene Glycol
Table 4 Freezing and Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol
Table 5 Freezing and Boiling Points of Aqueous Solutions of Propylene Glycol
Table 6 Density of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol
Table 7 Specific Heat of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol
Table 8 Thermal Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol
Table 9 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol
Table 10 Density of Aqueous Solutions of an Industrially Inhibited Propylene Glycol
Table 11 Specific Heat of Aqueous Solutions of Propylene Glycol
Table 12 Thermal Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Propylene Glycol
Table 13 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Propylene Glycol
Table 14 Properties of Polydimethylsiloxane Heat Transfer Fluid
Table 15 Summary of Physical Properties of Polydimethylsiloxane Mixture and d-Limonene
Table 16 Physical Properties of d-Limonene
Figures
Fig. 1 Specific Heat of Calcium Chloride Brines
Fig. 2 Specific Gravity of Calcium Chloride Brines
Fig. 3 Viscosity of Calcium Chloride Brines
Fig. 4 Thermal Conductivity of Calcium Chloride Brines
Fig. 5 Specific Heat of Sodium Chloride Brines
Fig. 6 Specific Gravity of Sodium Chloride Brines
Fig. 7 Viscosity of Sodium Chloride Brines
Fig. 8 Thermal Conductivity of Sodium Chloride Brines
Fig. 9 Density of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Ethylene Glycol (vol. %)
Fig. 10 Specific Heat of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Ethylene Glycol (vol. %)
Fig. 11 Thermal Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Ethylene Glycol (vol. %)
Fig. 12 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Ethylene Glycol (vol. %)
Fig. 13 Density of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Propylene Glycol (vol.%)
Fig. 14 Specific Heat of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Propylene Glycol (vol.%)
Fig. 15 Thermal Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Propylene Glycol (vol.%)
Fig. 16 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Industrially Inhibited Propylene Glycol (vol.%)
--- CHAPTER 32: SORBENTS AND DESICCANTS ---
1. Desiccant Applications
2. Desiccant Cycle
3. Types of Desiccants
Liquid Absorbents
Solid Adsorbents
4. Desiccant Isotherms
5. Desiccant Life
6. Cosorption of Water Vapor and Indoor Air Contaminants
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Vapor Pressures and Dew-Point Temperatures Corresponding to Different Relative Humidities at 70°F
Figures
Fig. 1 Desiccant Water Vapor Pressure as Function of Moisture Content
Fig. 2 Desiccant Water Vapor Pressure as Function of Desiccant Moisture Content and Temperature
Fig. 3 Desiccant Cycle
Fig. 4 Surface Vapor Pressure of Water/Triethylene Glycol Solutions
Fig. 5 Surface Vapor Pressure of Water/Lithium Chloride Solutions
Fig. 6 Adsorption and Structural Characteristics of Some Experimental Silica Gels
Fig. 7 Sorption Isotherms of Various Desiccants
--- CHAPTER 33: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ---
REFERENCES
Tables
Table 1 Properties of Vapor
Table 2 Properties of Liquids
Table 3 Properties of Solids
--- CHAPTER 34: ENERGY RESOURCES ---
1. Characteristics of Energy and Energy Resource Forms
Fossil Fuels and Electricity
Forms of On-Site Energy
Nonrenewable and Renewable Energy Resources
Environmental Considerations
1.1 On-Site Energy/Energy Resource Relationships
Quantifiable Relationships
Intangible Relationships
1.2 Summary
2. Energy Resource Planning
2.1 Integrated Resource Planning (IRP)
2.2 Tradable Emission Credits
3. Overview of Global Energy Resources
3.1 World Energy Resources
Production
Reserves
Consumption
3.2 Carbon Emissions
3.3 U.S. Energy Use
Per Capita Energy Consumption
Projected Overall Energy Consumption
Outlook Summary
3.4 U.S. Agencies and Associations
References
Bibliography
Figures
Fig. 1 Energy Production Trends: 2004-2014
Fig. 2 World Primary Energy Production by Resource: 2004 Versus 2014
Fig. 3 World Crude Oil Reserves: 2015
Fig. 4 World Natural Gas Reserves: 2015
Fig. 5 World Recoverable Coal Reserves: 2015
Fig. 6 World Petroleum Consumption: 2015
Fig. 7 World Natural Gas Consumption: 2014
Fig. 8 World Coal Consumption: 2014
Fig. 9 Coal Consumption in United States, China, and India, 1980-2014
Fig. 10 World Electricity Generation by Resource: 2002 and 2012
Fig. 11 World Electricity Generation 2014
Fig. 12 Per Capita Energy Consumption by Selected Countries: 2011
Fig. 13 World Carbon Emissions
Fig. 14 Per Capita United States Energy Consumption
Fig. 15 Projected World Energy Consumption by Resource
Fig. 16 Projected Total U.S. Energy Consumption by End-Use Sector
Fig. 17 Projected Total U.S. Energy Consumption by Resource
--- CHAPTER 35: SUSTAINABILITY ---
1. Definition
2. Characteristics of Sustainability
Sustainability Addresses the Future
Sustainability Has Many Contributors
Sustainability Is Comprehensive
Technology Plays Only a Partial Role
3. Factors Impacting Sustainability
4. Primary HVAC&R Considerations in Sustainable Design
Energy Resource Availability
Fresh Water Supply
Effective and Efficient Use of Energy Resources and Water
Material Resource Availability and Management
Embodied Energy
Air, Noise, and Water Pollution
Solid and Liquid Waste Disposal
5. Factors Driving Sustainability into Design Practice
Climate Change
Regulatory Environment
Evolving Standards of Care
Changing Design Process
Other Opportunities
6. Designing for Effective Energy Resource Use
Energy Ethic: Resource Conservation Design Principles
Energy and Power
Simplicity
Self-Imposed Budgets
Design Process for Energy-Efficient Projects
Building Energy Use Elements
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Example Benchmark and Energy Targets for University Research Laboratory
Figures
Fig. 1 Cooling Tower Noise Barrier
Fig. 2 Effect of Montreal Protocol on Global Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Production
Fig. 3 Electricity Generation by Fuel, 1980–2030
--- CHAPTER 36: CLIMATE CHANGE ---
1. Overview of Climate Science
Climate vs Weather
Global Signatures of Climate Change
Natural and Human Drivers of Climate Change
Causes of Observed Global Warming
Climate Change in the Distant Past
Feedbacks in the Climate Systems
Changes in Climate System Related to Recent Global Warming
Observed Changes in Global Climate Conditions
Station-level Trend Data
Future Changes in Climate
Projected Climatic Information for Use in Building Design and Analysis
Using Recent Measured Data
Summary
2. Mitigating Climate Change
Reduce Carbon Emissions by Design and Construction
Perform Deep Energy Retrofits of Existing Buildings
Reduce Carbon Emissions from Building Operations
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and Building Electrification
Cost of Avoiding GHG Emissions
Refrigerants and Fluorinated Gases (F-Gases)
Geoengineering Technologies
Summary
3. Adapting to Climate Change
An ASHRAE Framework for Risk-Aware Practice
Adaptation and Related Terms
Chronic vs Acute Impacts of Climate Change
Impacts on Envelope-Driven Loads
Impacts on HVAC Systems
Impacts on Indoor Air Quality
Operational Management and Design for Smoke Migration Risk from Wildfires
Existing Professional Activities
Design Opportunities and Strategies
Resources for Adaptation
Existing ASHRAE Resources
4. Conclusion
5. Glossary
References
Tables
Table 1 System of Likelihood Terms Corresponding to Probabilities from Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4) and IPCC’s
Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) (IPCC 2014b; USGCRP 2017)
Table 2 New source generation costs when compared to existing coal generation (Gillingham and Stock 2018)
Table 3 Static costs of policies based on a compilation of economic studies (Gillingham and Stock 2018)
Table 4 Refrigerant Environmental Properties. Atmospheric lifetime, ODP and GWP100 from Table A-1 of (Fahey et al. 2018) except where indicated
Figures
Fig. 1 Globally averaged surface temperature anomalies by decade from 1880-1889 (“1880s”) to 2010-2019 (“2010s”) (Zhang et al. 2019). Reference period is 1901-1960
Fig. 2 Global mean energy budget of Earth under presentday climate conditions. Numbers state magnitudes of the individual energy fluxes in watts per square meter (W/m2) averaged over Earth’s surface, adjusted within their
uncertainty ranges to balance the energy budgets of the atmosphere and the surface. Numbers in parentheses attached to the energy fluxes cover the range of values in line with
observational constraints. Fluxes shown include those resulting from feedbacks. Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflected solar values given here are based on observations 2001–2010;
TOA outgoing longwave is based on 2005–2010 observations. (Figure 2-11, IPCC 2013).
Fig. 3 Comparison of observed global mean temperature
anomalies from three observational datasets to the fifth
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) climate
model historical experiments using: (a) anthropogenic and
natural forcings combined, or (b) natural forcings only
(Knutson et al. 2017)
Fig. 4 Simplified diagram of the global carbon cycle. Numbers denote reservoir mass, also called " carbon stocks " in Pg C (1 Pg
C = 1015 g C) and annual carbon exchange fluxes (in Pg C / yr ) between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and
ocean
Fig. 5 Surface temperature change (in °F) for the period 1986–2015 relative to 1901–1960 from the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information’s (NCEI) surface temperature product (USGCRP 2017). Similar, interactive maps can be found at www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag /global/mapping
Fig. 6 ASHRAE climate zone changes between 1980-1999
and 2000-2019
Fig. 7 Change in a metric of extreme precipitation by regions
used in NCA4(USGCRP 2017)
Fig. 8 Projected change in heating degree days by the mid-21st century (2036-2065) relative to 1976-2005 under a high emissions scenario (RPC 8.5)
Fig. 9 Projected change in cooling degree days by the mid-
21st century (2036-2065) relative to 1976-2005 under a high
emissions scenario (RPC 8.5)
Fig. 10 CMIP5 multi-model mean geographical changes
(relative to a 1981–2000
Fig. 11 Projected change in the annual highest maximum
temperature by the mid-21st century (2036-2065) relative to
1976-2005 under a high emissions scenario (RPC 8.5)
Fig. 12 Projected change in the annual lowest daily minimum
temperature for 2036-2065 (relative to 1976-2005) under a high
emissions scenario (RPC 8.5).
Fig. 13 Annual sum of HDD from Heathrow Airport,
London, and Dulles Airport, Washington, D.C
Fig. 14 Annual sum of CDD from Heathrow Airport,
London, and Dulles Airport, Washington, D.C
Fig. 15 Global share of buildings and construction final
energy and emissions, 2018 (Figure 2, IEA, 2019)
Fig. 16 U.S. Commercial buildings energy use by end use,
2012
Fig. 17 U.S. Residential electricity consumption by end use,
2015
Fig. 18 Global CO2 emissions (fossil fuels, industry, & landuse
change) in a “well below 2°C” scenario from MESSAGE. It
is possible to split the net emissions (black line) into gross
positive and gross negative emissions
--- CHAPTER 37: MOISTURE MANAGEMENT IN BUILDINGS ---
1. Effects of Humidity and Dampness
2. Elements of Moisture Management
3. Envelope and HVAC Interactions
4. Indoor Wetting and Drying
Understanding Vapor Balance
Hygric Buffering
5. Vapor Release Related to Building Use
Residential Buildings
Natatoriums
6. Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure Difference Analysis
Residential Buildings
Natatoriums
Student Residences and Schools
7. Avoiding Moisture Problems
HVAC Systems
Ground Pipes
Building Fabric
Building Envelope
8. Climate-Specific Moisture Management
Temperate and Mixed Climates
Hot and Humid Climates
Cold Climates
9. Moisture Management in Other Handbook Chapters
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Vapor Released by Humans, Human Activities,
and Plants
Table 2 Daily Vapor Release by Humans, Human Activities,
and Plants: Data from Three Countries
Table 3 Vapor Released by Fuel Burning
Table 4 Vapor Release for Family of Two, Both Working, Weekday Schedule
Table 5 Vapor Release for Family of Four, One Parent and One Child at Home, Weekday Schedule
Table 6 Daily Vapor Release in Relation to Number of
Family Members
Table 7 Vapor Release Rates by Percentile
Table 8 Measured Surface Film Coefficients for Diffusion, Related to Pool Surface
Table 9 Finland and Estonia, Indoor Climate, Boundaries
(Weekly Means)
Table 10 Indoor Air Temperature and Indoor/Outdoor Vapor
Pressure Difference: Means and Extremes Measured in
Five Temperate-Climate Schools
Figures
Fig. 1 Dynamic Interaction Between Air, Moisture, and
Materials in HVAC Systems and Building Envelope
Fig. 2 Measured Water Vapor Pressure Outdoors and
Indoors for Office Building
Fig. 3 Daily Vapor Pressure in Two-Person Bedroom
Fig. 4 Comparison of Daytime Relative Humidity for
Summer and Winter Case
Fig. 5 Annual Monthly Averaged Indoor/Outdoor Vapor
Pressure Difference in Bedroom of Figure 3
Fig. 6 Factor f as Function of Pool User Density
Fig. 7 Daytime Rooms in Dwellings
Fig. 8 Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure Difference in
1065 U.K. Living Rooms
Fig. 9 Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure Difference in 916 U.K. Bedrooms
Fig. 10 Water Vapor Pressure Excess in Relation to the
Running Weekly Mean Temperature for Northern
Europe and Canada
Fig. 11 Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure Differences for 10
German Living Rooms
Fig. 12 Monthly Mean Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure
Difference in Relation to Monthly Mean Outdoor Air
Temperature in Three U.S. Climate Zones
Fig. 13 Measured Monthly Mean Indoor/Outdoor Vapor
Concentration Difference in 10 Homes in Madison, WI, and
10 Homes in Knoxville, TN
Fig. 14 Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure Difference with
Intersect at 32°F for 71 Rhode Island Homes
Fig. 15 Weekly Mean Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure
Differences for 20 Natatoriums
(Measured Data and Least-Square Straight Line)
Fig. 16 Natatoriums: (A) Low-Sloped Roof Damaged by
Convection-Induced Interstitial Condensation; (B) Interstitial
Condensation in Low-Sloped Roof Polyurethane Foam
Insulation; (C) Timber Beam Collapse; (D) Abundant Surface
Condensation on Window and Lintel
Fig. 17 Weekly Mean Indoor/Outdoor Vapor Pressure
Differences in Four Student Residences
Fig. 18 Sedlbauer’s Isopleth System for Class I Substrates:
Time Until Germination
--- CHAPTER 38: MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTS ---
1. Terminology
2. Uncertainty Analysis
Uncertainty Sources
Uncertainty of a Measured Variable
3. Temperature Measurement
Sampling and Averaging
Static Temperature Versus Total Temperature
3.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Sources of Thermometer Errors
3.2 Resistance Thermometers
Resistance Temperature Devices
Thermistors
Semiconductor Devices
3.3 Thermocouples
Wire Diameter and Composition
Multiple Thermocouples
Surface Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple Construction
3.4 Optical Pyrometry
3.5 Infrared Radiation Thermometers
3.6 Infrared Thermography
4. Humidity Measurement
4.1 Psychrometers
4.2 Dew-Point Hygrometers
Condensation Dew-Point Hygrometers
Salt-Phase Heated Hygrometers
4.3 Mechanical Hygrometers
4.4 Electrical Impedance and Capacitance Hygrometers
Dunmore Hygrometers
Polymer Film Electronic Hygrometers
Ion Exchange Resin Electric Hygrometers
Impedance-Based Porous Ceramic Electronic Hygrometers
Aluminum Oxide Capacitive Sensor
4.5 Electrolytic Hygrometers
4.6 Piezoelectric Sorption
4.7 Spectroscopic (Radiation Absorption) Hygrometers
4.8 Gravimetric Hygrometers
4.9 Calibration
5. Pressure Measurement
Units
5.1 Instruments
Pressure Standards
Mechanical Pressure Gages
Electromechanical Transducers
General Considerations
6. Air Velocity Measurement
6.1 Airborne Tracer Techniques
6.2 Anemometers
Deflecting Vane Anemometers
Propeller or Revolving (Rotating) Vane Anemometers
Cup Anemometers
Thermal Anemometers
Laser Doppler Velocimeters (or Anemometers)
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
6.3 Pitot-Static Tubes
6.4 Measuring Flow in Ducts
6.5 Airflow-Measuring Hoods
7. Flow Rate Measurement
Flow Measurement Methods
7.1 Venturi, Nozzle, and Orifice Flowmeters
7.2 Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters)
7.3 Coriolis Principle Flowmeters
7.4 Positive-Displacement Meters
7.5 Turbine Flowmeters
7.6 Electromagnetic (MAG) Flowmeters
7.7 Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters
8. Air Infiltration, Airtightness, and Outdoor Air Ventilation Rate Measurement
Carbon Dioxide
9. Carbon Dioxide Measurement
9.1 Nondispersive Infrared CO2 Detectors
Calibration
Applications
9.2 Amperometric Electrochemical CO2 Detectors
9.3 Photoacoustic CO2 Detectors
Open-Cell Sensors
Closed-Cell Sensors
9.4 Potentiometric Electrochemical CO2 Detectors
9.5 Colorimetric Detector Tubes
9.6 Laboratory Measurements
10. Electric Measurement
Ammeters
Voltmeters
Wattmeters
Power-Factor Meters
11. Rotative Speed and Position Measurement
Tachometers
Stroboscopes
AC Tachometer-Generators
Optical (Shaft) Encoders
12. Sound and Vibration Measurement
12.1 Sound Measurement
Microphones
Sound Measurement Systems
Frequency Analysis
Sound Chambers
Calibration
12.2 Vibration Measurement
Transducers
Vibration Measurement Systems
Calibration
13. Lighting Measurement
14. Thermal Comfort Measurement
Clothing and Activity Level
Air Temperature
Air Velocity
Plane Radiant Temperature
Mean Radiant Temperature
Air Humidity
14.1 Calculating Thermal Comfort
14.2 Integrating Instruments
15. Moisture Content and Transfer Measurement
Moisture Content
Vapor Permeability
Liquid Diffusivity
16. Heat Transfer Through Building Materials
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductance and Resistance
17. Air Contaminant Measurement
18. Combustion Analysis
18.1 Flue Gas Analysis
19. Data Acquisition and Recording
Digital Recording
Data-Logging Devices
20. Mechanical Power Measurement
Measurement of Shaft Power
Measurement of Fluid Pumping Power
20.1 Symbols
Standards
References
Bibliography
Tables
Table 1 Common Temperature Measurement Techniques
Table 2 Thermocouple Tolerances on Initial Values of Electromotive Force Versus Temperature
Table 3 Humidity Sensor Properties
Table 4 Air Velocity Measurement
Table 5 Volumetric or Mass Flow Rate Measurement
Figures
Fig. 1 Measurement and Instrument Terminology
Fig. 2 Errors in Measurement of Variable X
Fig. 3 Typical Resistance Thermometer Circuit
Fig. 4 Typical Resistance Temperature Device (RTD) Bridge Circuits
Fig. 5 Basic Thermistor Circuit
Fig. 6 Standard Pitot Tube
Fig. 7 Pitot-Static Probe Pressure Coefficient Yaw Angular Dependence
Fig. 8 Measuring Points for Rectangular and Round Duct Traverse
Fig. 9 Typical Herschel-Type Venturi Meter
Fig. 10 Dimensions of ASME Long-Radius Flow Nozzles
Fig. 11 Sharp-Edge Orifice with Pressure Tap Locations
Fig. 12 Variable-Area Flowmeter
Fig. 13 Nondispersive Infrared Carbon Dioxide Sensor
Fig. 14 Amperometric Carbon Dioxide Sensor
Fig. 15 Open-Cell Photoacoustic Carbon Dioxide Sensor
Fig. 16 Closed-Cell Photoacoustic Carbon Dioxide Sensor
Fig. 17 Ammeter Connected in Power Circuit
Fig. 18 Ammeter with Current Transformer
Fig. 19 Voltmeter Connected Across Load
Fig. 20 Voltmeter with Potential Transformer
Fig. 21 Wattmeter in Single-Phase Circuit Measuring Power Load plus Loss in Current-Coil Circuit
Fig. 22 Wattmeter in Single-Phase Circuit Measuring Power Load plus Loss in Potential-Coil Circuit
Fig. 23 Wattmeter with Current and Potential Transformer
Fig. 24 Polyphase Wattmeter in Two-Phase, Three-Wire Circuit with Balanced or Unbalanced Voltage or Load
Fig. 25 Polyphase Wattmeter in Three-Phase, Three-Wire Circuit
Fig. 26 Single-Phase Power-Factor Meter
Fig. 27 Three-Wire, Three-Phase Power-Factor Meter
Fig. 28 Madsen’s Comfort Meter
Fig. 29 Adsorption Isotherm and Desorption Isotherm for Hygroscopic Material
--- CHAPTER 39: ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ---
1. Abbreviations for Text, Drawings, and Computer Programs
Computer Programs
2. Letter Symbols
3. Letter Symbols
4. Dimensionless Numbers
5. Mathematical Symbols
6. Piping System Identification
Definitions
Method of Identification
7. Codes and Standards
Tables
Table 1 Abbreviations for Text, Drawings, and Computer Programs
Table 2 Examples of Legends
Table 3 Classification of Hazardous Materials and Designation of Colors
Table 4 Size of Legend Letters
Figures
Fig. 1 Visibility of Pipe Markings
--- CHAPTER 40: UNITS AND CONVERSIONS ---
Tables
Table 1 Conversions to I-P and SI Units
Table 2 Conversion Factors
--- CHAPTER 41: CODES AND STANDARDS ---
Tables
Selected Codes and Standards Published by Various Societies and Associations
ORGANIZATIONS
--- Additions and Corrections ---
2019 HVAC Applications
2020 HVAC Systems and Equipment
--- COMPOSITE INDEX: ASHRAE HANDBOOK SERIES ---
Abbreviations, F38
Absorbents
Absorption
Acoustics. See Sound
Activated alumina, S24.1, 4, 12
Activated carbon adsorption, A47.9
Adaptation, environmental, F9.17
ADPI. See Air diffusion performance index (ADPI)
Adsorbents
Adsorption
Aeration, of farm crops, A26
Aerosols, S29.1
AFDD. See Automated fault detection and diagnostics (AFDD)
Affinity laws for centrifugal pumps, S44.8
AFUE. See Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE)
AHU. See Air handlers
Air
Air barriers, F25.9; F26.5
Airborne infectious diseases, F10.7
Air cleaners. (See also Filters, air; Industrial exhaust gas cleaning)
Air conditioners. (See also Central air conditioning)
Air conditioning. (See also Central air conditioning)
Air contaminants, F11. (See also Contaminants)
Aircraft, A13
Air curtains
Air diffusers, S20
Air diffusion, F20
Air diffusion performance index (ADPI), A58.6
Air dispersion systems, fabric, S19.11
Air distribution, A58; F20; S4; S20
Air exchange rate
Air filters. See Filters, air
Airflow
Airflow retarders, F25.9
Air flux, F25.2. (See also Airflow)
Air handlers
Air inlets
Air intakes
Air jets. See Air diffusion
Air leakage. (See also Infiltration)
Air mixers, S4.8
Air outlets
Airports, air conditioning, A3.6
Air quality. [See also Indoor air quality (IAQ)]
Air terminal units (ATUs)
Airtightness, F37.24
Air-to-air energy recovery, S26
Air-to-transmission ratio, S5.13
Air transport, R27
Air washers
Algae, control, A50.12
All-air systems
Altitude, effects of
Ammonia
Anchor bolts, seismic restraint, A56.7
Anemometers
Animal environments
Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE), S34.2
Antifreeze
Antisweat heaters (ASH), R15.5
Apartment buildings
Aquifers, thermal storage, S51.7
Archimedes number, F20.6
Archives. See Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries
Arenas
Argon, recovery, R47.17
Asbestos, F10.5
ASH. See Antisweat heaters (ASH)
Atriums
Attics, unconditioned, F27.2
Auditoriums, A5.3
Automated fault detection and diagnostics (AFDD), A40.4; A63.1
Automobiles
Autopsy rooms, A9.12; A10.6, 7
Avogadro’s law, and fuel combustion, F28.11
Backflow-prevention devices, S46.14
BACnet®, A41.9; F7.18
Bacteria
Bakery products, R41
Balance point, heat pumps, S48.9
Balancing. (See also Testing, adjusting, and balancing)
BAS. See Building automation systems (BAS)
Baseboard units
Basements
Bayesian analysis, F19.37
Beer’s law, F4.16
Behavior
BEMP. See Building energy modeling professional (BEMP)
Bernoulli equation, F21.1
Best efficiency point (BEP), S44.8
Beverages, R39
BIM. See Building information modeling (BIM)
Bioaerosols
Biocides, control, A50.14
Biodiesel, F28.8
Biological safety cabinets, A17.5
Biomanufacturing cleanrooms, A19.11
Bioterrorism. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
Boilers, F19.21; S32
Boiling
Brake horsepower, S44.8
Brayton cycle
Bread, R41
Breweries
Brines. See Coolants, secondary
Building automation systems (BAS), A41.8; A63.1; F7.14
Building energy modeling professional (BEMP), F19.5
Building energy monitoring, A42. (See also Energy, monitoring)
Building envelopes
Building information modeling (BIM), A41.8; A60.18
Building materials, properties, F26
Building performance simulation (BPS), A65.8
Buildings
Building thermal mass
Burners
Buses
Bus terminals
Butane, commercial, F28.5
CAD. See Computer-aided design (CAD)
Cafeterias, service water heating, A51.12, 19
Calcium chloride brines, F31.1
Candy
Capillary action, and moisture flow, F25.10
Capillary tubes
Carbon dioxide
Carbon emissions, F34.7
Carbon monoxide
Cargo containers, R25
Carnot refrigeration cycle, F2.6
Cattle, beef and dairy, A25.7. (See also Animal environments)
CAV. See Constant air volume (CAV)
Cavitation, F3.13
CBRE. See Chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
CEER. See Combined energy efficiency ratio (CEER)
Ceiling effect. See Coanda effect
Ceilings
Central air conditioning, A43. (See also Air conditioning)
Central plant optimization, A8.13
Central plants
Central systems
Cetane number, engine fuels, F28.9
CFD. See Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
Change-point regression models, F19.28
Charge minimization, R1.36
Charging, refrigeration systems, R8.4
Chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive (CBRE) incidents, A61
Chemical plants
Chemisorption, A47.10
Chilled beams, S20.10
Chilled water (CW)
Chillers
Chilton-Colburn j-factor analogy, F6.7
Chimneys, S35
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), A35.44
Chocolate, R42.1. (See also Candy)
Choking, F3.13
CHP systems. See Combined heat and power (CHP)
Cinemas, A5.3
CKV. See Commercial kitchen ventilation (CVK)
Claude cycle, R47.8
Cleanrooms. See Clean spaces
Clean spaces, A19
Clear-sky solar radiation, calculation, F14.8
Climate change, F36
Climatic design information, F14
Clinics, A9.17
Clothing
CLTD/CLF. See Cooling load temperature differential method with solar cooling load factors (CLTD/CLF)
CMMS. See Computerized maintenance management system (CMSS)
Coal
Coanda effect, A34.22; F20.2, 7; S20.2
Codes, A66. (See also Standards)
Coefficient of performance (COP)
Coefficient of variance of the root mean square error [CV(RMSE)], F19.33
Cogeneration. See Combined heat and power (CHP)
Coils
Colburn’s analogy, F4.17
Colebrook equation
Collaborative design, A60
Collectors, solar, A36.6, 11, 24, 25; S37.3
Colleges and universities, A8.11
Combined energy efficiency ratio (CEER), S49.3
Combined heat and power (CHP), S7
Combustion, F28
Combustion air systems
Combustion turbine inlet cooling (CTIC), S7.21; S8.1
Comfort. (See also Physiological principles, humans)
Commercial and public buildings, A3
Commercial kitchen ventilation (CKV), A34
Commissioning, A44
Comprehensive room transfer function method (CRTF), F19.11
Compressors, S38
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), F13.1, F19.25
Computer-aided design (CAD), A19.6
Computerized maintenance management system (CMMS), A60.17
Computers, A41
Concert halls, A5.4
Concrete
Condensate
Condensation
Condensers, S39
Conductance, thermal, F4.3; F25.1
Conduction
Conductivity, thermal, F25.1; F26.1
Constant air volume (CAV)
Construction. (See also Building envelopes)
Containers. (See also Cargo containers)
Contaminants
Continuity, fluid dynamics, F3.2
Control. (See also Controls, automatic; Supervisory control)
Controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage
Controlled-environment rooms (CERs), and plant growth, A25.16
Controls, automatic, F7. (See also Control)
Convection
Convectors
Convention centers, A5.5
Conversion factors, F39
Cooking appliances
Coolants, secondary
Coolers. (See also Refrigerators)
Cooling. (See also Air conditioning)
Cooling load
Cooling load temperature differential method with solar cooling load factors (CLTD/CLF), F18.57
Cooling towers, S40
Cool storage, S51.1
COP. See Coefficient of performance (COP)
Corn, drying, A26.1
Correctional facilities. See Justice facilities
Corrosion
Costs. (See also Economics)
Cotton, drying, A26.8
Courthouses, A10.5
Courtrooms, A10.5
CPVC. See Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
Crawlspaces
Critical spaces
Crops. See Farm crops
Cruise terminals, A3.6
Cryogenics, R47
Curtain walls, F15.6
Dairy products, R33
Dampers
Dampness problems in buildings, A64.1
Dams, concrete cooling, R45.1
Darcy equation, F21.6
Darcy-Weisbach equation
Data centers, A20
Data-driven modeling
Daylighting, F19.26
DDC. See Direct digital control (DDC)
Dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS), F36.12; S4.14; S18.2, 8; S25.4; S51
Definitions, of refrigeration terms, R50
Defrosting
Degree-days, F14.12
Dehumidification, A48.15; S24
Dehumidifiers
Dehydration
Demand control kitchen ventilation (DCKV), A34.18
Density
Dental facilities, A9.17
Desiccants, F32.1; S24.1
Design-day climatic data, F14.12
Desorption isotherm, F26.20
Desuperheaters
Detection
Dew point, A64.8
Diamagnetism, and superconductivity, R47.5
Diesel fuel, F28.9
Diffusers, air, sound control, A49.12
Diffusion
Diffusivity
Dilution
Dining halls, in justice facilities, A10.4
DIR. See Dispersive infrared (DIR)
Direct digital control (DDC), F7.4, 11
Direct numerical simulation (DNS), turbulence modeling, F13.4; F24.13
Dirty bombs. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
Disabilities, A8.23
Discharge coefficients, in fluid flow, F3.9
Dispersive infrared (DIR), F7.10
Display cases
Display cases, R15.2, 5
District energy (DE). See District heating and cooling (DHC)
District heating and cooling (DHC), S12
d-limonene, F31.12
DNS. See Direct numerical simulation (DNS)
DOAS. See Dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS)
Doors
Dormitories
Draft
Drag, in fluid flow, F3.5
Driers, S7.6. (See also Dryers)
Drip station, steam systems, S12.14
Dryers. (See also Driers)
Drying
DTW. See Dual-temperature water (DTW) system
Dual-duct systems
Dual-temperature water (DTW) system, S13.1
DuBois equation, F9.3
Duct connections, A64.10
Duct design
Ducts
Dust mites, F25.16
Dusts, S29.1
Dynamometers, A18.1
Earth, stabilization, R45.3, 4
Earthquakes, seismic-resistant design, A56.1
Economic analysis, A38
Economic coefficient of performance (ECOP), S7.2
Economic performance degradation index (EPDI), A63.5
Economics. (See also Costs)
Economizers
ECOP. See Economic coefficient of performance (ECOP)
ECS. See Environmental control system (ECS)
Eddy diffusivity, F6.7
Educational facilities, A8
EER. See Energy efficiency ratio (EER)
Effectiveness, heat transfer, F4.22
Effectiveness-NTU heat exchanger model, F19.19
Efficiency
Eggs, R34
Electricity
Electric thermal storage (ETS), S51.17
Electronic smoking devices (“e-cigarettes”), F11.19
Electrostatic precipitators, S29.7; S30.7
Elevators
Emissions, pollution, F28.9
Emissivity, F4.2
Emittance, thermal, F25.2
Enclosed vehicular facilities, A16
Energy
Energy and water use and management, A37
Energy efficiency ratio (EER)
Energy savings performance contracting (ESPC), A38.8
Energy transfer station, S12.37
Engines, S7
Engine test facilities, A18
Enhanced tubes. See Finned-tube heat transfer coils
Enthalpy
Entropy, F2.1
Environmental control
Environmental control system (ECS), A13
Environmental health, F10
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
EPDI. See Economic performance degradation index (EPDI)
Equipment vibration, A49.44; F8.17
ERF. See Effective radiant flux (ERF)
ESPC. See Energy savings performance contracting (ESPC)
Ethylene glycol, in hydronic systems, S13.24
ETS. See Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS); Electric thermal storage (ETS)
Evaluation. See Testing
Evaporation, in tubes
Evaporative coolers. (See also Refrigerators)
Evaporative cooling, A53
Evaporators. (See also Coolers, liquid)
Exfiltration, F16.2
Exhaust
Exhibit buildings, temporary, A5.6
Exhibit cases
Exhibition centers, A5.5
Expansion joints and devices
Expansion tanks, S12.10
Explosions. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
Fairs, A5.6
Family courts, A10.4. (See also Juvenile detention facilities)
Fan-coil units, S5.6
Fans, F19.18; S21
Farm crops, drying and storing, A26
Faults, system, reasons for detecting, A40.4
f-Chart method, sizing heating and cooling systems, A36.20
Fenestration. (See also Windows)
Fick’s law, F6.1
Filters, air, S29. (See also Air cleaners)
Finned-tube heat-distributing units, S36.2, 5
Finned-tube heat transfer coils, F4.25
Fins, F4.6
Fire/smoke control. See Smoke control
Firearm laboratories, A10.7
Fire management, A54.2
Fireplaces, S34.5
Fire safety
Fish, R19; R32
Fitness facilities. (See also Gymnasiums)
Fittings
Fixed-guideway vehicles, A12.7. (See also Mass-transit systems)
Fixture units, A51.1, 28
Flammability limits, gaseous fuels, F28.1
Flash tank, steam systems, S11.14
Floors
Flowers, cut
Flowmeters, A39.26; F37.18
Fluid dynamics computations, F13.1
Fluid flow, F3
Food. (See also specific foods)
Food service
Forced-air systems, residential, A1.1
Forensic labs, A10.6
Fouling factor
Foundations
Fountains, Legionella pneumophila control, A50.15
Fourier’s law, and heat transfer, F25.5
Four-pipe systems, S5.5
Framing, for fenestration
Freeze drying, A31.6
Freeze prevention. (See also Freeze protection systems)
Freeze protection systems, A52.19, 20
Freezers
Freezing
Friction, in fluid flow
Fruit juice, R38
Fruits
Fuel cells, combined heat and power (CHP), S7.22
Fuels, F28
Fume hoods, laboratory exhaust, A17.3
Fungi
Furnaces, S33
Galleries. See Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries
Garages
Gases
Gas-fired equipment, S34. (See also Natural gas)
Gas vents, S35.1
Gaussian process (GP) models, F19.30
GCHP. See Ground-coupled heat pumps (GCHP)
Generators
Geothermal energy, A35
Geothermal heat pumps (GHP), A35.1
Glaser method, F25.15
Glazing
Global climate change, F36
Global warming potential (GWP), F29.5
Glossary, of refrigeration terms, R50
Glycols, desiccant solution, S24.2
Graphical symbols, F38
Green design, and sustainability, F35.1
Greenhouses. (See also Plant environments)
Grids, for computational fluid dynamics, F13.4
Ground-coupled heat pumps (GCHP)
Ground-coupled systems, F19.23
Ground-source heat pumps (GSHP), A35.1
Groundwater heat pumps (GWHP), A35.30
GSHP. See Ground-source heat pumps (GSHP)
Guard stations, in justice facilities, A10.5
GWHP. See Groundwater heat pumps (GWHP)
GWP. See Global warming potential (GWP)
Gymnasiums, A5.5; A8.3
HACCP. See Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)
Halocarbon
Hartford loop, S11.3
Hay, drying, A26.8
Hazard analysis and control, F10.4
Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP), R22.4
Hazen-Williams equation, F22.6
HB. See Heat balance (HB)
Health
Health care facilities, A9. (See also specific types)
Health effects, mold, A64.1
Heat
Heat and moisture control, F27.1
Heat balance (HB), S9.23
Heat balance method, F19.3
Heat capacity, F25.1
Heat control, F27
Heaters, S34
Heat exchangers, S47
Heat flow, F25. (See also Heat transfer)
Heat flux, F25.1
Heat gain. (See also Load calculations)
Heating
Heating load
Heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF), S48.6
Heating values of fuels, F28.3, 9, 10
Heat loss. (See also Load calculations)
Heat pipes, air-to-air energy recovery, S26.14
Heat pumps
Heat recovery. (See also Energy, recovery)
Heat storage. See Thermal storage
Heat stress
Heat transfer, F4; F25; F26; F27. (See also Heat flow)
Heat transmission
Heat traps, A51.1
Helium
High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, A29.3; S29.6; S30.3
High-rise buildings. See Tall buildings
High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, R33.2
High-temperature water (HTW) system, S13.1
Homeland security. See Chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
Hoods
Hospitals, A9.3
Hot-box method, of thermal modeling, F25.8
Hotels and motels, A7
Hot-gas bypass, R1.35
Houses of worship, A5.3
HSI. See Heat stress, index (HSI)
HSPF. See Heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF)
HTST. See High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization
Humidification, S22
Humidifiers, S22
Humidity (See also Moisture)
HVAC security, A61
Hybrid inverse change point model, F19.31
Hybrid ventilation, F19.26
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), R1.1
Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), R1.1
Hydrogen, liquid, R47.3
Hydronic systems, S35. (See also Water systems)
Hygrometers, F7.9; F37.10, 11
Hygrothermal loads, F25.2
Hygrothermal modeling, F25.15; F27.10
IAQ. See Indoor air quality (IAQ)
IBD. See Integrated building design (IBD)
Ice
Ice makers
Ice rinks, A5.5; R44
ID50‚ mean infectious dose, A61.9
Ignition temperatures of fuels, F28.2
IGUs. See Insulating glazing units (IGUs)
Illuminance, F37.31
Indoor airflow, A59.1
Indoor air quality (IAQ). (See also Air quality)
Indoor environmental modeling, F13
Indoor environmental quality (IEQ), kitchens, A33.20. (See also Air quality)
Indoor swimming pools. (See also Natatoriums)
Induction
Industrial applications
Industrial environments, A15, A32; A33
Industrial exhaust gas cleaning, S29. (See also Air cleaners)
Industrial hygiene, F10.3
Infiltration. (See also Air leakage)
Infrared applications
In-room terminal systems
Instruments, F14. (See also specific instruments or applications)
Insulating glazing units (IGUs), F15.5
Insulation, thermal
Integrated building design (IBD), A60.1
Integrated project delivery (IPD), A60.1
Integrated project delivery and building design,
Intercoolers, ammonia refrigeration systems, R2.12
Internal heat gains, F19.13
Jacketing, insulation, R10.7
Jails, A10.4
Joule-Thomson cycle, R47.6
Judges’ chambers, A10.5
Juice, R38.1
Jury facilities, A10.5
Justice facilities, A10
Juvenile detention facilities, A10.1. (See also Family courts)
K-12 schools, A8.3
Kelvin’s equation, F25.11
Kirchoff’s law, F4.12
Kitchens, A34
Kleemenko cycle, R47.13
Krypton, recovery, R47.18
Laboratories, A17
Laboratory information management systems (LIMS), A10.8
Lakes, heat transfer, A35.37
Laminar flow
Large eddy simulation (LES), turbulence modeling, F13.3; F24.13
Laser Doppler anemometers (LDA), F37.17
Laser Doppler velocimeters (LDV), F37.17
Latent energy change materials, S51.2
Laundries
LCR. See Load collector ratio (LCR)
LD50‚ mean lethal dose, A61.9
LDA. See Laser Doppler anemometers (LDA)
LDV. See Laser Doppler velocimeters (LDV)
LE. See Life expectancy (LE) rating
Leakage
Leakage function, relationship, F16.15
Leak detection of refrigerants, F29.9
Legionella pneumophila, A50.15; F10.7
Legionnaires’ disease. See Legionella pneumophila
LES. See Large eddy simulation (LES)
Lewis relation, F6.9; F9.4
Libraries. See Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries
Life expectancy (LE) rating, film, A23.3
Lighting
Light measurement, F37.31
LIMS. See Laboratory information management systems (LIMS)
Linde cycle, R47.6
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), S8.6
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), F28.5
Liquid overfeed (recirculation) systems, R4
Lithium bromide/water, F30.71
Lithium chloride, S24.2
LNG. See Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
Load calculations
Load collector ratio (LCR), A36.22
Local exhaust. See Exhaust
Loss coefficients
Louvers, F15.33
Low-temperature water (LTW) system, S13.1
LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
LTW. See Low-temperature water (LTW) system
Lubricants, R6.1; R12. (See also Lubrication; Oil)
Lubrication, R12
Mach number, S38.32
Maintenance. (See also Operation and maintenance)
Makeup air units, S28.8
Malls, 12.7
Manometers, differential pressure readout, A39.25
Manufactured homes, A1.9
Masonry, insulation, F26.7. (See also Building envelopes)
Mass transfer, F6
Mass-transit systems
McLeod gages, F37.13
Mean infectious dose (ID50), A61.9
Mean lethal dose (LD50), A61.9
Mean temperature difference, F4.22
Measurement, F36. (See also Instruments)
Measurement, F37. (See also Instruments)
Meat, R30
Mechanical equipment room, central
Mechanical traps, steam systems, S11.8
Medium-temperature water (MTW) system, S13.1
Megatall buildings, A4.1
Meshes, for computational fluid dynamics, F13.4
Metabolic rate, F9.6
Metals and alloys, low-temperature, R48.6
Microbial growth, R22.4
Microbial volatile organic chemicals (MVOCs), F10.8
Microbiology of foods, R22.1
Microphones, F37.29
Mines, A30
Modeling. (See also Data-driven modeling; Energy, modeling)
Model predictive control (MPC), A65.6
Moist air
Moisture (See also Humidity)
Mold, A64.1; F25.16
Mold-resistant gypsum board, A64.7
Molecular sieves, R18.10; R41.9; R47.13; S24.5. (See also Zeolites)
Montreal Protocol, F29.1
Morgues, A9.1
Motors, S45
Movie theaters, A5.3
MPC (model predictive control), A65.6
MRT. See Mean radiant temperature (MRT)
Multifamily residences, A1.8
Multiple-use complexes
Multisplit unitary equipment, S48.1
Multizone airflow modeling, F13.14
Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries
MVOCs. See Microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs)
Natatoriums. (See also Swimming pools)
Natural gas, F28.5
Navier-Stokes equations, F13.2
NC curves. See Noise criterion (NC) curves
Net positive suction head (NPSH), A35.31; R2.9; S44.10
Network airflow models, F19.25
Neutral pressure level (NPL), A4.1
Night setback, recovery, A43.44
Nitrogen
Noise, F8.13. (See also Sound)
Noise criterion (NC) curves, F8.16
Noncondensable gases
Normalized mean bias error (NMBE), F19.33
NPL. See Neutral pressure level (NPL)
NPSH. See Net positive suction head (NPSH)
NTU. See Number of transfer units (NTU)
Nuclear facilities, A29
Number of transfer units (NTU)
Nursing facilities, A9.17
Nuts, storage, R42.7
Odors, F12
ODP. See Ozone depletion potential (ODP)
Office buildings
Oil, fuel, F28.7
Oil. (See also Lubricants)
Olf unit, F12.6
One-pipe systems
Operating costs, A38.4
Operation and maintenance, A39. (See also Maintenance)
OPR. See Owner’s project requirements (OPR)
Optimization, A43.4
Outdoor air, free cooling (See also Ventilation)
Outpatient health care facilities, A9.16
Owning costs, A38.1
Oxygen
Ozone
Ozone depletion potential (ODP), F29.5
PACE. (See Property assessment for clean energy)
Packaged terminal air conditioners (PTACs), S49.5
Packaged terminal heat pumps (PTHPs), S49.5
PAH. See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Paint, and moisture problems, F25.16
Panel heating and cooling, S6. (See also Radiant heating and cooling)
Paper
Paper products facilities, A27
Parallel compressor systems, R15.14
Particulate matter, indoor air quality (IAQ), F10.5
Passive heating, F19.27
Pasteurization, R33.2
Peak dew point, A64.10
Peanuts, drying, A26.9
PEC systems. See Personal environmental control (PEC) systems
PEL. See Permissible exposure limits (PEL)
Performance contracting, A42.2
Performance monitoring, A48.6
Permafrost stabilization, R45.4
Permeability
Permeance
Permissible exposure limits (PELs), F10.5
Personal environmental control (PEC) systems, F9.26
Pharmaceutical manufacturing cleanrooms, A19.11
Pharmacies, A9.13
Phase-change materials, thermal storage in, S51.16, 27
Photographic materials, A23
Photovoltaic (PV) systems, S36.18. (See also Solar energy)
Physical properties of materials, F33
Physiological principles, humans. (See also Comfort)
Pigs. See Swine
Pipes. (See also Piping)
Piping. (See also Pipes)
Pitot tubes, A39.2; F37.17
Places of assembly, A5
Planes. See Aircraft
Plank’s equation, R20.7
Plant environments, A25.10
Plenums
PMV. See Predicted mean vote (PMV)
Police stations, A10.1
Pollutant transport modeling. See Contami- nants, indoor, concentration prediction
Pollution
Pollution, air, and combustion, F28.9, 17
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), F10.6
Polydimethylsiloxane, F31.12
Ponds, spray, S40.6
Pope cell, F37.12
Positive building pressure, A64.11
Positive positioners, F7.8
Potatoes
Poultry. (See also Animal environments)
Power grid, A63.9
Power-law airflow model, F13.14
Power plants, A28
PPD. See Predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD)
Prandtl number, F4.17
Precooling
Predicted mean vote (PMV), F37.32
Predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD), F9.18
Preschools, A8.1
Pressure
Pressure drop. (See also Darcy-Weisbach equation)
Primary-air systems, S5.10
Printing plants, A21
Prisons, A10.4
Produce
Product load, R15.6
Propane
Property assessment for clean energy (PACE), A38.9
Propylene glycol, hydronic systems, S13.24
Psychrometers, F1.13
Psychrometrics, F1
PTACs. See Packaged terminal air condition- ers (PTACs)
PTHPs. See Packaged terminal heat pumps (PTHPs)
Public buildings. See Commercial and public buildings; Places of assembly
Pumps
Pumps, F19.18
Purge units, centrifugal chillers, S43.11
PV systems. See Photovoltaic (PV) systems; Solar energy
Radiant heating and cooling, A55; S6.1; S15; S33.4. (See also Panel heating and cooling)
Radiant time series (RTS) method, F18.2, 22
Radiation
Radiators, S36.1, 5
Radioactive gases, contaminants, F11.21
Radiosity method, F19.26
Radon, F10.16, 22
Rail cars, R25. (See also Cargo containers)
Railroad tunnels, ventilation
Rain, and building envelopes, F25.4
RANS. See Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation
Rapid-transit systems. See Mass-transit systems
Rayleigh number, F4.20
Ray tracing method, F19.27
RC curves. See Room criterion (RC) curves
Receivers
Recycling refrigerants, R9.3
Refrigerant/absorbent pairs, F2.15
Refrigerant control devices, R11
Refrigerants, F29.1
Refrigerant transfer units (RTU), liquid chillers, S43.11
Refrigerated facilities, R23
Refrigeration, F1.16. (See also Absorption; Adsorption)
Refrigeration oils, R12. (See also Lubricants)
Refrigerators
Regulators. (See also Valves)
Relative humidity, F1.12
Residential health care facilities, A9.17
Residential systems, A1
Resistance, thermal, F4; F25; F26. (See also R-values)
Resistance temperature devices (RTDs), F7.9; F37.6
Resistivity, thermal, F25.1
Resource utilization factor (RUF), F34.2
Respiration of fruits and vegetables, R19.17
Restaurants
Retail facilities, 12
Retrofit performance monitoring, A42.4
Retrofitting refrigerant systems, contaminant control, S7.9
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation, F13.3; F24.13
Reynolds number, F3.3
Rice, drying, A26.9
RMS. See Root mean square (RMS)
Road tunnels, A16.3
Roofs, U-factors, F27.2
Room air distribution, A58; S20.1
Room criterion (RC) curves, F8.16
Root mean square (RMS), F37.1
RTDs. See Resistance temperature devices (RTDs)
RTS. See Radiant time series (RTS)
RTU. See Refrigerant transfer units (RTU)
RUF. See Resource utilization factor (RUF)
Rusting, of building components, F25.16
R-values, F23; F25; F26. (See also Resistance, thermal)
Safety
Sanitation
Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR), A38.12
Savings-to-investment-ratio (SIR), A38.12
Scale
Schneider system, R23.7
Schools
Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER)
Security. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
Seeds, storage, A26.12
SEER. See Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER)
Seismic restraint, A49.53; A56.1
Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs), F10.4, 12; F11.15
Sensors
Separators, lubricant, R11.23
Service water heating, A51
SES. See Subway environment simulation (SES) program
Set points, A65.1
Shading
Ships, A13
Shooting ranges, indoor, A10.8
Short-tube restrictors, R11.31
Silica gel, S24.1, 4, 6, 12
Single-duct systems, all-air, S4.11
SIR. See Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR)
Skating rinks, R44.1
Skylights, and solar heat gain, F15.21
Slab heating, A52
Slab-on-grade foundations, A45.11
SLR. See Solar-load ratio (SLR)
Smart building systems, A63.1
Smart grid, A63.9, 11
Smoke control, A54
Snow-melting systems, A52
Snubbers, seismic, A56.8
Sodium chloride brines, F31.1
Soft drinks, R39.10
Software, A65.7
Soils. (See also Earth)
Solar energy, A36; S37.1 (See also Solar heat gain; Solar radiation)
Solar heat gain, F15.14; F18.16
Solar-load ratio (SLR), A36.22
Solar-optical glazing, F15.14
Solar radiation, F14.8; F15.14
Solid fuel
Solvent drying, constant-moisture, A31.7
Soot, F28.20
Sorbents, F32.1
Sorption isotherm, F25.10; F26.20
Sound, F8. (See also Noise)
Soybeans, drying, A26.7
Specific heat
Split-flux method, F19.26
Spot cooling
Stack effect
Stadiums, A5.4
Stairwells
Standard atmosphere, U.S., F1.1
Standards, A66. (See also Codes)
Static air mixers, S4.8
Static electricity and humidity, S22.2
Steam
Steam systems, S11
Steam traps, S11.7
Stefan-Boltzmann equation, F4.2, 12
Stevens’ law, F12.3
Stirling cycle, R47.14
Stokers, S31.17
Storage
Stoves, heating, S34.5
Stratification
Stroboscopes, F37.28
Subcoolers
Subway environment simulation (SES) program, A16.3
Subway systems. (See also Mass-transit systems)
Suction risers, R2.24
Sulfur content, fuel oils, F28.9
Superconductivity, diamagnetism, R47.5
Supermarkets. See Retail facilities, supermarkets
Supertall buildings, A4.1
Supervisory control, A43
Supply air outlets, S20.2. (See also Air outlets)
Surface effect. See Coanda effect
Surface transportation
Surface water heat pump (SWHP), A35.3
Sustainability, F16.1; F35.1; S48.2
SVFs. See Synthetic vitreous fibers (SVFs)
SVOCs. See Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs)
SWHP. See Surface water heat pump (SWHP)
Swimming pools. (See also Natatoriums)
Swine, recommended environment, A25.7
Symbols, F38
Synthetic vitreous fibers (SVFs), F10.6
TABS. See Thermally activated building systems (TABS)
Tachometers, F37.28
Tall buildings, A4
Tanks, secondary coolant systems, R13.2
TDD. See Tubular daylighting devices
Telecomunication facilities, air-conditioning systems, A20.1
Temperature
Temperature-controlled transport, R25.1
Temperature index, S22.3
Terminal units. [See also Air terminal units (ATUs)], A48.13, F19.16; S20.7
Terminology, of refrigeration, R50
Terrorism. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents
TES. See Thermal energy storage (TES)
Testing
Testing, adjusting, and balancing. (See also Balancing)
TETD/TA. See Total equivalent temperature differential method with time averaging (TETD/TA)
TEWI. See Total equivalent warning impact (TEWI)
Textile processing plants, A22
TFM. See Transfer function method (TFM)
Theaters, A5.3
Thermal bridges, F25.8
Thermal comfort. See Comfort
Thermal displacement ventilation (TDV), F19.17
Thermal emittance, F25.2
Thermal energy storage (TES), S8.6; S51
Thermally activated building systems (TABS), A43.3, 34
Thermal-network method, F19.11
Thermal properties, F26.1
Thermal resistivity, F25.1
Thermal storage,
Thermal storage. See Thermal energy storage (TES) S51
Thermal transmission data, F26
Thermal zones, F19.14
Thermistors, R11.4
Thermodynamics, F2.1
Thermometers, F37.5
Thermopile, F7.4; F37.9; R45.4
Thermosiphons
Thermostats
Three-dimensional (3D) printers, F11.18
Three-pipe distribution, S5.6
Tobacco smoke
Tollbooths
Total equivalent temperature differential method with time averaging (TETD/TA), F18.57
Total equivalent warming impact (TEWI), F29.5
Trailers and trucks, refrigerated, R25. (See also Cargo containers)
Transducers, F7.10, 13
Transfer function method (TFM); F18.57; F19.3
Transmittance, thermal, F25.2
Transmitters, F7.9, 10
Transpiration, R19.19
Transportation centers
Transport properties of refrigerants, F30
Traps
Trucks, refrigerated, R25. (See also Cargo containers)
Tubular daylighting devices (TDDs), F15.30
Tuning automatic control systems, F7.19
Tunnels, vehicular, A16.1
Turbines, S7
Turbochargers, heat recovery, S7.34
Turbulence modeling, F13.3
Turbulent flow, fluids, F3.3
Turndown ratio, design capacity, S13.4
Two-node model, for thermal comfort, F9.18
Two-pipe systems, S5.5; S13.20
U.S. Marshal spaces, A10.6
U-factor
Ultralow-penetration air (ULPA) filters, S29.6; S30.3
Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems, S17
Ultraviolet air and surface treatment, A62
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), A60.1; S17.1. [See also Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems]
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), A62.1; S17.1. [See also Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems]
Uncertainty analysis
Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems, A4.6; A58.14; F19.17
Unitary systems, S48
Unit heaters. See Heaters
Units and conversions, F39
Unit ventilators, S28.1
Utility interface, electric, S7.43
Utility rates, A63.11
UV. See Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems
UVGI. See Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI)
Vacuum cooling, of fruits and vegetables, R28.9
Validation, of airflow modeling, F13.9, 10, 17
Valves. (See also Regulators)
Vaporization systems, S8.6
Vapor pressure, F27.8; F33.2
Vapor retarders, jackets, F23.12
Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems
Variable-frequency drives, S45.14
Variable refrigerant flow (VRF), S18.1; S48.1, 14
Variable-speed drives. See Variable-frequency drives S51
VAV. See Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems
Vegetables, R37
Vehicles
Vena contracta, F3.4
Vending machines, R16.5
Ventilation, F16
Ventilators
Venting
Verification, of airflow modeling, F13.9, 10, 17
Vessels, ammonia refrigeration systems, R2.11
Vibration, F8.17
Viral pathogens, F10.9
Virgin rock temperature (VRT), and heat release rate, A30.3
Viscosity, F3.1
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), F10.11
Voltage, A57.1
Volume ratio, compressors
VRF. See Variable refrigerant flow (VRF)
VRT. See Virgin rock temperature (VRT)
Walls
Warehouses, A3.8
Water
Water heaters
Water horsepower, pump, S44.7
Water/lithium bromide absorption
Water-source heat pump (WSHP), S2.4; S48.11
Water systems, S13
Water treatment, A50
Water use and management (See Energy and water use and management)
Water vapor control, A45.6
Water vapor permeance/permeability, F26.12, 17, 18
Water vapor retarders, F26.6
Water wells, A35.30
Weather data, F14
Weatherization, F16.18
Welding sheet metal, S19.12
Wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), heat stress, A32.5
Wheels, rotary enthalpy, S26.9
Whirlpools and spas
Wien’s displacement law, F4.12
Wind. (See also Climatic design information; Weather data)
Wind chill index, F9.23
Windows. (See also Fenestration)
Wind restraint design, A56.15
Wineries
Wireless sensors, A63.7
Wood construction, and moisture, F25.10
Wood products facilities, A27.1
Wood pulp, A27.2
Wood stoves, S34.5
WSHP. See Water-source heat pump (WSHP)
Xenon, R47.18
Zeolites, R18.10; R41.9; R47.13; S24.5. (See also Molecular sieves)